I'm going to post my notes. They're very long, so hold on tight. AUSTRALIAN HISTORY NOTES YEAR 10 BY LUNG.
TOPIC ONE: AUSTRALIA IN THE VIETNAM WAR ERA
What is Communism?
• An economic and political system proposed by Germans Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, in the book The Communist Manifesto (1848)
• Communism is defined as a political system based on controlling wealth in the belief that the state should provide everyone with an equal share.
• Russia was the first communist country.
The Cold War
• Was a period between 1945 and 1992 when the USA and USSR competed with each other for world dominance.
• After WW2, the USSR (The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) wanted to spread communism across the world so the USA tried to stop the USSR’s influence where it could – for example, the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
• USA and USSR both build nuclear weapons and enhanced their space programs to outdo each other.
• Even though tension was high, the two countries never fought each other. Thus, this is called the Cold War.
Australia’s Response to the Threat of Communism Within Australia
• In the 1950s, many Australians feared the spread of communism in Asia, especially after China had become a communist country in 1949.
• A common phrase used by opponents of communism at the time was “Reds under the beds” which meant that many people saw a communist threat everywhere.
• In 1950, Menzies wanted to ban the Australian Communist Party
- He claimed that they were subversives (people who wished to destroy the government).
- He claimed that the Australian Communist Party was loyal to the USSR, not Australia
- He wanted to suppress the Australian Communist Party’s views and values in society.
• Menzies’ attempt was unsuccessful because 10 trade unions and the Australian Communist Part challenged the Law in the High Court of Australia. It was then deemed unconstitutional.
• H.V. Evatt (ALP Deputy Leader) appeared on behalf of one of the communist led unions. This was bad because Menzies claimed that Evatt and the ALP supported communism.
• In 1951, Menzies held a referendum which asked Australians to decide whether the Constitution should be changed to accommodate the Communist Party Dissolution Bill. The result was “no”.
The Petrov Affair
• Vladimir Petrov, a Soviet diplomat was granted political asylum (protection) in Australia.
• Soviet officials dragged Mrs. Petrov onto an aeroplane.
• Australian police arrested Mrs. Petrov’s captors in Darwin.
• In 1954, Menzies won the election.
• ALP leader Evatt claimed it was a Liberal Part conspiracy to keep Labor out of Government.
• The DLP (Democratic Labor Party) was formed from members of the ALP who opposed Evatt and communism.
• A royal commission on espionage (spying) showed that there was no evidence of a Soviet spy ring operating in Australia.
• Menzies used the fear of communism to gain political advantage during the Petrov Affair as Australias viewed Menzies as one of the most anti-communist people in Australia as he had tried to ban the Australian Communist Party.
Australia’s Response to the Threat of Communism in Asia
• Five ideas that influenced Australia’s foreign policy in the 1950s and 1960s were:
- The Domino Theory, the belief, particularly in the USA and Australia, that if a South-East Asian country fell to communism, then like falling dominoes, the rest of Asia would follow.
- That Australia could not adequately defend itself against communism
- The idea of Asian communism expanding – China had just become a communist country and this raised fear in Australia.
- Australia saw the need to strengthen its relationship with Great Britain and the USA and so they would support Australia in times of war.
- The idea that it was better to meet communism outside of Australia (Forward Defense). It was believed that such a strategy would increase Australian security and ability to respond to the threats of communist expansion.
• The ANZUS Treaty, 1951
- Signed on 1951, September, by the USA, New Zealand and Australia.
- It bound each of the countries by a sense of obligation to assist eachother in the event of an attack.
• The SEATO Treaty, 1954
- Stands for South-East Asia Treaty Organisation
- Set up in September 1954 with members including USA, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Pakistan and the Philippines.
- Australia was prepared to join SEATO because it linked Australia to allies, particularly USA and Britain. It also fitted the idea of forward defense.
- Opposed to communist activity in South-East Asia.
• The Korean War
- Australia was the first nation to support the United Nations’ call to send an international force to support South Korea.
- Australia sent troops to prevent North Korea invading South Korea.
- The war ended in 1953 with the loss of approximately 118000 UN troops. 300 Australians died.
- Australia had gone to Korea to stop communist invasion and to prove its loyal alliance with USA.
- The Korean War was an example of “forward defence”.
• Malayan Emergency
- Malaya was facing communist threat in 1950. In 1955, Menzies’ government decided to assist the British by sending Australian ground troops as well as naval and air power to Malaya. The defence of Malaya was seen as vital to the defence of Australia.
- Was a good example of the concept of “Forward Defense”.
Australia’s Involvement in the Vietnam War
Why?
• The Menzies Government saw any Communist victory in South Vietnam as a threat to Australia.
• It was a perfect opportunity to strengthen ties between Australia and the USA.
• To fulfil the concept of “forward defence”
• To stop the “Domino Theory” if it was indeed what was happening.
• The general Australia Population initially agreed with involvement in the war, including the RSL and most Church leaders.
National Service
• Scheme to increase Australia’s army numbers.
• Men were forced to register for military service when they turned 20.
• Aboriginal Australians were no required to do so.
• A ballot using marbles with dates on them were used. Any marble drawn out would indicate that men born on the date shown would need to serve in armed forces.
• Apprentices and uni students didn’t need to serve.
• Evaders were placed in prison for 2 years.
All the Way With LBJ
• Part of a speech Prime Minister Holt made to US President Lyndon Baines Johnson.
• Holt meant that Australia would support any decisions the USA made.
Casualties Australians Suffered Australians Suffered in the Vietnam War
• 3500 casualties, 500 dead, 3000 wounded.
• 50 000 Australians served in the war, but never more than 8300 at one time.
Role of Australian Troops in Vietnam
• Main role of Australian troops was on “search and destroy” missions. Networks of underground tunnels were uncovered and destroyed.
• Villages harbouring Vietcong supplies were often burnt.
• 2 million dead from both sides of the war.
Anti-Vietnam War Protests
Protesters (group/individual) Methods of Protest Reasons for Protest
Youth Campaign Against Conscription (YCAC) Teach-ins, debates • Opposed Australia’s involvement in the war.
The Labor Party Statements against the Government and public speeches • That Australian troops should be in Vietnam to help end the war, not extend it.
• That the war was not only a war against communism, as it was a civil war.
Save Our Sons (SOS) Held meetings, wrote letters to newspapers, demonstrated with placards, handed out leaflets. Some chained themselves to Parliament House. Some demonstrated with silent protest. • They didn’t want their songs to go to war.
Raymond King (Greaser) Refused to board any war materials on ship to Vietnam. • Believed the weapons would have killed too many women and children.
Vietnam Action Committee (VAC) Distributed anti-war materials, and held demonstrations. • Wanted full withdrawal of troops from Vietnam.
Draft Resisters Refused to register their name for National Service and burnt their registration papers. • Didn’t want to go to war.
Conscientious Objectors Refused to accept their call-up for conscription and went to jail. • They didn’t want to go to war as they thought that war was morally wrong.
Large, united protest movements of the late 60s and early 70s, and prominent ALP politician Jim Cairns. Arranged moratoriums and went to moratoriums. A moratorium involved those opposed to the war leaving work at a set time, going to protest, then returning to their jobs. • Opposed the war
• Wanted immediate withdrawal of Australian and allied troops from Indochina
• Wanted the abolishment of conscription.
• The protest movement grew as the war went on because:
- The war was dragging on
- Many people saw the atrocities of war on TV
- Many people thought that Australia had no place in the war because it was in Vietnam
- Conscription was introduced.
Impacts the Vietnam War had on:
Australian Politics
• The Labor Party was strongly opposed to the war and often criticised the Liberal Government. Labor was elected as the Government in 1972 under PM Whitlam, ending 23 consecutive years where the Liberals were in power.
Australian Society
• Many Australians were horrified to see the atrocities of war.
• Our involvement in the war sparked many debates, protests and divided opinions.
Was Australia Becoming Involved in the War Justified?
For
• To fulfil concept of “forward defence”.
• To stop the “Domino Theory”
• To strengthen ties between USA and Australia so the USA would support Australia in times of war, especially with the political instability at the time.
Against
• Many people didn’t support involvement in the war.
• South Vietnam did not want Australia in the war.
The Voice of the Vietnam Veteran
Why has the experience of many Vietnam veterans been so difficult?
• Many suffered mental and physical problems.
• They came home to contempt and hostility, rather than gratitude.
• Many were not treated for post-traumatic stress disorder (“battle fatigue)
• Many had drug-related illnesses due to the drugs used in Vietnam.
• Many had serious medical problems as they were exposed to dangerous chemicals used for defoliation.
• Many developed genetic abnormalities and many passed them onto their children.
Vietnam Veteran’s Association
• Established to gain recognition for Vietnam War veterans who endured the hardships of war, and to pressure the Government into giving Vietnam War veterans compensation.
• It has been very successful – it succeeded in gaining Vietnam War veterans recognition for their efforts.
• Succeeded in 1994, October, in gaining health compensation for Vietnam War Veterans.
Agent Orange
• Most commonly used chemical for defoliation in Vietnam.
• Many soldiers were exposed to it and developed health effects such as cancer, birth abnormalities and toxic brain dysfunction.
• Agent Orange was used to deprive Vietcong guerrillas of bush cover.
GLOSSARY
• Another word for National Service CONSCRIPTION (reintroduced in 1964)
• The rivalry between USA and USSR after WWII COLD WAR
• Longest serving Prime Minister of Australia ROBERT MENZIES
• All the way with LBJ
• South East Asia Treaty Organisation SEATO
• Alliance between Australia, USA and NZ ANZUS
• Biggest Asian Country to become Communist CHINA
• This theory stated that if one country fell to Communism, so too would its neighbours DOMINO THEORY
• Australian P.M. after Menzies HOLT
• Largest protest held in Australia during Vietnam War MORATORIUM
• Chemical used to kill vegetation AGENT ORANGE
• The first country where Australians were sent to fight against communism KOREA
• This idea suggested that Australia should fight communism overseas before it came to Australia FORWARD DEFENCE
• Reds under the BED
• Term used to describe an experienced soldier who has returned from war VETERAN
• S.O.S. is an abbreviation for this protest movement SAVE OUR SONS
• Soviet diplomat who sought political asylum in Australia PETROV
• Labor leader who opposed Menzies’ attempt to ban the Communist Party in Australia EVATT
• A man who refused to fight in the Vietnam War was called a CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTOR
• Important Labor politician who organised the Moratorium protest JIM CAIRNS
TOPIC TWO: CHANGING RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS
Aborigines
Changing Government Policies Towards Aboriginal People Over Time
Name of Government Policy What happened? When?
Protection Aborigines placed on government-run missions for their “protection”. It was also done to separate Aborigines from White Australians. 1850s – 1940s
Effects on Aborigines
• Aborigines lived in very poor conditions
• Inspectors would inspect houses for how tidy they were. Families were treated like little kids and had little privacy.
• Aborigines needed permits to come and go.
• Many fell ill due to insanitary conditions.
• Health services and education was poor.
• Some Aboriginal children, particularly those with some white blood in them were taken to live with White Australians or white schools.
• Some women were sexually abused.
• Many Aborigines were malnourished, due to a lack of food or poor food quality.
• Many were blamed for things they didn’t do.
Name of Government Policy What happened? When?
Assimilation This policy was aimed at absorbing Aborigines into the wider community; however, they had to abandon their culture and behave like White Australians. 1950s - 1965
Effects on Aborigines
• They had to abandon their own culture and traditional values.
• This policy was aimed to give Aborigines the chance to blend into the community, to have job opportunities and to live like White Australians, but due to racism, they did not have these opportunities.
• There was segregation; there were usually “white only” and “black only” areas. This led to a separation of cultures.
• Hospitals were often closed to Aborigines because it was feared that they would bring diseases into the hospital.
• They suffered more racism.
• They had a lot of difficulty finding jobs.
Name of Government Policy What happened? When?
Integration This policy allowed Aboriginal people to mix with the wider population, without having to abandon their culture. This ended assimilation. 1965 - Today
Effects on Aborigines
• This was a positive step because it allowed Aborigines to keep their culture and traditions. Even so, Aborigines still faced racism and had fewer rights than other Australians.
Name of Government Policy What happened? When?
Self-Determination This policy allowed Aborigines to have a greater say in how they lived their lives. 1972 - Today
Effects on Aborigines
• They had more control over their lives. E.g. They could choose to practice their own culture.
• More of their rights have been recognised and their quality of life improved, to some extent.
• They can advise governments on Aboriginal issues. However, governments don’t always accept their advice.
• Even with self-determination, Aborigines have still not gained everything they want, and are still the most underprivileged community in Australia.
The Stolen Generation
• During the 20th century, thousands of Aboriginal children, particularly half Aboriginal and half white (often referred to as “half castes”) were forcibly removed from their homes, away from their families and sent to missions, or reserve institutions.
• The experiences the children had were that of great misery and unhappiness in poor conditions, but there have been a very minor group of children of the Stolen Generation who thought that the experience was good for them.
Some experiences Aboriginal children had after removal are:
• They were taught that their own culture and people were bad.
• Those placed in white families were usually treated badly, differently from white children.
• Captured siblings and relatives were often separated and placed into different institutions.
• Education was poor.
• Living conditions were poor.
• They were often inspected for lice and to see if they had done their duties, such as making their beds.
• They were given new White names and birth dates.
• The children were not allowed to speak their Aboriginal language.
Why did Australian governments remove Aboriginal children from their families?
• To breed out the Aboriginality out of Aboriginal kids. It was believed that if Aboriginal kids were removed from their families, institutionalised, educated and intermarried, eventually, less and less Aboriginality would be apparent in the next generation (so the next generation would have less Aboriginal blood in them, etc.)
• To help Aborigines assimilate into the White community so they could become, in the eyes of the white, “useful” citizens.
• To protect the Aborigines who had been previously abused by their own clan for having White fathers.
How did their removal from their families permanently affect the children of the Stolen Generation?
• Removal denied the removed children of family bonds.
• Removal denied the removed children of their culture and their identity.
• Many suffered physical abuse e.g. sexual assault.
• Many people suffered emotional abuse, e.g. verbal abuse, being told that they were bad all the time.
• When the children grew up, they were exploited for labour (usually maids for women and sheering for men).
Link-Up Organisation
• Purpose is to help children of the Stolen Generation trace their families, and to councel those who were traumatised or suffered great loss from being denied their culture and identity.
The 1967 Referendum
What changes to the Constitution were proposed in the 1967 Referendum?
• To include the Aborigines in the population of Australia.
• For the Federal Government to have power regarding Aboriginal Affairs.
What was the result of the Referendum?
• About 90% of the 6182585 voters voted “yes”.
What did the Referendum achieve for the Aborigines?
• It meant that Aborigines were to be counted in the Australian census.
• While many people thought that Aboriginal people would get equal rights and opportunities, they did not in the short term.
• However, there was additional money from the Commonwealth to improve housing, health and education.
The Struggle for Land Rights and Native Title
How is the Aboriginal view of land different from most other Australians?
• Aborigines viewed their land as their “mother”, which provided them with food and care. They view the land as the basis of the Dreamtime, religion, spirituality, art and culture.
• Most other Australians do not think of land this way – but rather, a place to live, possibly to sell and make a profit from.
The Land Rights Movement
• Their aim was to get the land they considered sacred.
The Aboriginal Tent Embassy
• Established on 26th January, 1972.
• The Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established on what is now the lawn of Old Parliament House.
• Established to courage Aborigines from all over Australia to unite and fight against McMahon’s government ruling to not give land rights to Aborigines.
The Aboriginal Flag
• Black represents the Aboriginal people living in Australia for tens of thousands of years.
• Yellow represents the sun: the source of all life.
• Red represents the colour of the Earth and the blood spilt by Aborigines in defending their land.
Examples where Aborigines were granted land rights in the 1970s and 1980
• 1976
- Fraser government passed the Aboriginal Land Rights (N.T.) Bill
- This let Aborigines claim crown land and reserves on the basis of traditional ownership.
- However, this was for land “no other person or government had use for”.
- The law provided for refusal of mining unless it was in national interest.
• 1981
- South Australian government returned 10% of SA’s land to the Pitjantjatjara and Maralinga peoples. They were also given the right to be paid if mining took place on any of those lands.
• 1984
- Indigenous peoples in Queensland gained ownership of reserve land.
• 1985
- Aborigines in the Northern Territory were formally returned Ayers Rock (now known as Uluru).
The Mabo Case
• Eddie Mabo and the Meriam Islanders took the QLD government to court because they wanted to challenge the QLD Government’s decision to deny some Meriam Islanders the use of their land.
• After losing the first case in the QLD Supreme Court, they appealed to the High Court of Australia.
• The High Court ruled in favour of the Meriam Islanders. The High Court decided that native title to the land existed before 1788 and might still be in existence on land which had ben never sold or given away.
• The High Court of Australia recognised that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders were the original owners of the land and that some of these peoples might retain native title (legal recognition of the existence of indigenous peoples’ law and land ownership before 1788) of land.
• This decision was important because it overturned the concept of “Terra Nullius”.
The Native Title Act 1993 (Cwlth)
• On December 22 1993, after eighteen months of discussion and debate with government and community groups, the Federal Parliament passed the Native Title Bill, which was its response to the Mabo Decision. The main features of this law were:
- Recognition of existing land rights for all owners of freehold property
- The requirement that native title claims be supported by proof of continued associationg with the land claimed.
• Only land that was not sold to the owners of freehold property could be claimed.
• Land privately owned could not be claimed.
• Aboriginal Communities had to prove that they had a continuing association with the ladn they wanted to claim in order to claim Native Title.
1996 Wik Decision
• The 1996 High Court Wik Decision strengthened claims to Native Titel because it meant that Aborigines could still claim Native Title on land leased out to pastoralists.
John Howard’s Ten Point Plan and the Native Title Amendment Act (1998)
• Made it more difficult for Aborigines to claim Native Title because in order for Aborigines to claim Native Title, the claimants had to prove that their parents had an ongoing relationship with the land.
Native Title and Land Rights
• Native Title is not as strong as land rights because even though some Aborigines have Native Title, it does not mean that they have land ownership, but have a say in what happens to the land.
• Land Rights is government given land, where the Aborigines have 100% say over what happens to the land and are the legal owners of the land.
Changing Patterns of Migration 1945 – 2000
• Soon after WWII, Immigration Minster, Arthur Calwell warned that Australia had to “populate or perish”. What did he mean by this?
o At the time, the world knew how vulnerable countries could be as WWII had just ended. At the time, Australia had a population of only seven million people and Arthur Calwell thought that the Australian population had to increase in order for the defence forces to gain more people and therefore defend Australia more adequately in times of attack. Australia had been very close to invasion from the Japanese in WWII.
British Migrants
• The Assisted Immigration Scheme aimed to attract British migrants to Australia. People wanting to migrate from Britain only had to pay ten pounds for adults and five pounds for children and board Australian ships. Australian ships would pick up the migrants from the shortages, control and poverty of post-war Britain and bring them to Australia, where they had to stay for at least two years.
Other European Migrants
• In the late 1940s and 1950s the government began to courage non-British migrants because there were not enough ships capable of bringing British migrants in comfortable conditions and immigration targets were not being met.
• These migrants came from European countries such as the Baltic states like Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Refugees also came from Poland and other European countries.
• These migrants came to Australia because they wanted to start new lives and to escape refugee camps which they had been living for many years.
• During these times, only WHITE people were allowed into Australia.
Non-European Migrants
• During the 1960s Australia’s immigration policy changed again after the dictation test was removed in 1958. Now, non-European migrants were allowed into Australia. Two reasons for this change in policy because:
- Of the need to continue attracting migrants to increase the population
- Reaction to world criticism of Australia’s policy of restricting non-European immigration, especially from Asia.
- Australia’s signing of the International Conventional of Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination.
Multiculturalism
What is multiculturalism?
• Multiculturalism is the policy that all people, including migrants, have the right to uphold their cultural identities and their practices, including what they speak and their religion.
Reasons behind the shift to multiculturalism in Australia
• Post WWII, the Government recognised that Australia was vulnerable to invasion, mainly due to the small population. The government adopted the attitude of “populate or perish”.
• Australia, in the eyes of the international community, was a racist country because of the assimilation policy, where those who had come had to adopt Australia culture and abandon their own culture.
• In the 1950s and 1960s, groups such as the Immigration Reform Group pushed for governmental immigration policy reform.
• The policy of multiculturalism was adopted by the Whitlam Government (1972 – 1975). The policy of assimilation wasn’t really working out.
• Anti-discrimination legislation was introduced to outlaw racism, and The Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs and the SBS (the Special Broadcasting Service) were established to cater to different migrant groups.
Implications of multiculturalism and their significance
• The influence of multiculturalism is apparent as the variety of food has increased. The introduction of various foods has enriched Australian culture.
• A richness of cultures, languages and religion has allowed a great deal of cultural awareness and global understanding.
• Other aspects such as architecture and fashion, new sports and generally lifestyle aspects such as eating outdoors (dining al fresco) have also enriched Australian culture.
• The economy is better as a result of multiculturalism. We have better relationships with other countries as we are not generally seen as a racist country anymore.
PEOPLE POWER AND POLITICS IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD
The United Nations
Origins
• Came into existence officially on 24th of October, 1945, which is celebrated annually as United Nations Day.
• Drafting of UN Charter begun whilst WWII was raging.
Aims and Roles
• The UN’s purpose is to bring together all the nations of the world to strive towards peace and development, based on the principals of justice, human dignity and the well-being of all people.
• The UN lists their aims as:
• To keep peace throughout the world
• To develop friendly relations between nations
• To work together to help people live better lives, to eliminate poverty, disease and illiteracy in the world, to stop environmental destruction, and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms.
• To be a centre for helping nations achieve these aims.
Australia’s Role Within the UN
• Australia �* officially joined UN on November 1, 1945.
• Australia’s involvement in the UN is predominantly through the General Assembly and bodies such as the World Health Organisation.
• Australia’s been involved in over 20 peacekeeping missions with the UN since 1947. Some of these missions, peacekeeping and humanitarian aid have been in Cambodia, PNG and East Timor.
• Australia upholds the aims of the UN by ratifying (adopting) conventions and treaties of the UN into domestic law.
UN Conventions
• UN Conventions:
o Human rights came to the forefront of international attention in the 1950s and 60s due to such events as the Genocide of Jews in WWII and the US Civil Rights movement.
o The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 states the rights of all people.
• For more than 50 years following this, the UN has incorporated these rights into international law through conventions and treaties, through these nations who have signed are agreeing to uphold the rights. Two of these Australia has ratified include:
o The International Covenant on Civil & Political Rights
o The International Covenant on Economic, Social & Cultural Rights.
• It's not just this declaration that has been incorporated into international law. The UN Declaration on the Rights of the Child has heavily influenced Australian domestic law.
Doc Evatt (Dr. Herbert Vere Evatt)
• Led the very first delegation to the UN and acted as the chair of the UN Palestine Commission and was the first president of the General Assembly from 1948-1949. He was the major player in the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and held the post of the chair of Atomic Energy Commission.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
• Incepted on November 16th 1945
• Worked to promote shared international respect, understanding and valuing of different civilisations and cultures.
• Main function is to encourage and facilitate global cooperation in the areas of communication, science, education and culture.
• Communicates information about scientific breakthroughs, holds discussions of ethical issues, work to end poverty and encourages the concept of sustainable development.
• Former PM Gough Whitlam was Australia’s Ambassador to UNESCO from 1983 – 1986.
• He was a strong advocate of Australia upholding its commitment to the UN initiatives in human rights, the environment and the preservation of our heritage.
• Australia’s PM at this time, Bob Hawke, also supported UNESCO.
• Australia’s involvement includes:
o Memory of the World program (MOW) which promotes protection of historical documents.
o Development of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS) based in Perth.
East Timor – Keeping the Peace
• Australia led a UN peacekeeping force sent to East Timor in 1999.
• Australia’s role in East Timor was mainly a peacekeeping one.
• Australia’s role was to bring an end to the violence and to keep an eye out on a period where East-Timor was trying to establish a self-government. Australia also provided large-scale humanitarian relief program to provide emergency assistance (such as food and medicine). The transitional administration was established to support East Timor in developing the necessary resources necessary for the new government to deliver the dream of independence.
Australia’s Regional Agreements
Name Members Date Established Conditions/Terms Changes
ANZUS Australia
New Zealand
USA 1951, during a time when communism was feared. • Hold meetings if there was a threat of attack on any of the countries.
• It made the countries have an obligation to help eachother if any was attacked. 1986 – US suspended treaty between them and NZ. Australia still holds bilateral agreements with USA (joint military exercises and facilities in Australia)
SEATO Members including: Australia
Britain
France
NZ
Pakistan
Philippines
Thailand
USA September 1954 • To protect countries in S.E. Asia who feared attack from communism Dissolved in 1977.
APEC
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Australia and 21 other countries/economies 1989 • Promotion of economic development, trade and investment.
• Have worked on reducing tariffs, promoting open, free trade and investment and improving security within S.E. Asia -
Colombo Plan 25 countries including Australia 1950 in Sri Lanka • Requires members to support economic and social development
• Share technology, industrial expertise
• Plan was intended for cooperative development in South and South-East Asia. In 1998, Consultative Committee developed Manila Colombo Plan Agenda (MACOPA 21) to guide the work of the Colombo Plan in the 21st Century.
GLOSSARY
• Australia was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945.
• This Australian was President of the UN General Assembly from 1948 – 1948 DOC EVATT
• The World Health Organisation WHO
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNESCO
• Two wars that Australia contributed military personnel to the UN forces include the KOREAN war and the GULF war.
• Australian military forces have contributed to over 20 UN PEACEKEEPING operations.
• In 1999 Australia sent more than 5000 military personnel to this place to act as peacekeepers. EAST TIMOR
• Australia has supported several UN conventions which uphold principals that protect HUMAN Rights.
• This regional agreement was made with the USA and New Zealand in 1951. ANZUS
• This regional agreement was alliance of several countries to protect South East Asia from communism. SEATO
• This Plan aims to promote economic and social development in poorer nations in the Asia-Pacific region. COLOMBO
• This organisation aims to promote economic development, trade and investment among its member nations. All 21 member nations have a coast touching the Pacific Ocean. APEC
• East Timor was invaded by this country in 1975. INDONESIA
• In 1999 the majority of East Timorese voted for independence in a REFERENDUM.
• After this vote, pro-Indonesian MILITIAS violently took revenge against the rest of the East Timorese.
GOUGH WHITLAM
It’s Time For a New Government
Why would have some groups in the Australian community have supported the Labor Party’s policies in 1972?
• Young people would have supported Labor Party’s policies in 1972 because the Labor Party planned to abolish university and college fees.
• Pensioners would have been in support of the Labor Party’s policies in 1972 because the Labor Party planned to increase the basic pension rate by 25%.
• Aborigines were in support because the Labor Party wanted to legislate to give the Aborigines land rights.
• People against Australian involvement in the Vietnam War would have supported the Labor Party in 1972 because the Labor Party planned to abolish conscription.
• Mothers were for the Labor Party because the Labor Party planned to make pre-school education available to every Australian child.
• Women would have supported the Labor Party because the Labor Party supported women’s rights.
Factors that would have influenced some Australians to vote Labor in 1972 when they had voted Liberal in previous elections
• Australian involvement in the Vietnam War was very unpopular at the time
• Party leadership was unstable
• Gough Whitlam was becoming increasingly popular with his reformist policies.
Why might some groups in Australian society have felt threatened by Whitlam’s reform program?
• Some groups such as the pastoralists would have felt threatened by Whitlam’s reform program as they would have been scared that some of their land would be given to Indigenous Australians (since the Labor Party wanted to give some land rights to Aborigines)
• The Liberal Party and its supporters would have felt threatened as Whitlam’s popularity was gaining momentum.
• Supporters of Australian involvement in war would have felt threatened, as well as people with high status because Whitlam’s policies promoted equality.
What made Whitlam so popular?
• His increasingly harsh stance against Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War
• His attractive policies such as free university, Medicare and the abolishment of conscription reached a broad scope of people.
• He was confident, vibrant, had practiced law before entering Federal Parliament meaning that he was well educated, and was a witty orator.
The Whitlam Government’s Reforms
Reforms that Promoted Equality
For Women • Creation of Office of Women’s Affairs to help women achieve equality.
• Promoted equal opportunities for women.
• Removed sales tax on contraceptive pill.
• Created an adult wage to replace a male and female separate wage.
• Introduction of Family Law Act 1975 to help remove the social stigma of divorced women which undermined their rights in custody disputes and property settlements. This law also meant that women leaving abusive relationships would no longer bear the “guilty” label.
For Migrants • Made moves towards multiculturalism.
• Abolishment of White Australia policy
• Establishment of equal preference for tourists wanting to come to Australia whereas in the past, white tourists were given higher priority.
• Introduced Racial Discrimination Act 1975
• Established radio programs in different languages, migrant education centres and interpreters on emergency phone calls.
For Aborigines • Established Northern and Central Land Councils to gain legal support for land rights claims.
• Introduced policy of self-determination.
• In 1975, Whitlam returned land to the Gurundji people had been denied in the 1971 Gove Land Rights Decision.
• Aborigines needed no longer to gain permission to leave the country.
• Funding for Aboriginal Affairs increased by 6-7 times.
For All • Abolishment of uni fees and increased spending on education
• Introduction of Medibank, a national health insurance scheme.
• Establishment of Legal Aid Office to provide legal representation for those who could not afford it.
Changes in Foreign Policy
Wanted to distance Australia from military commitment in Vietnam. Withdrew Australia from the Vietnam War and ended conscription. Granted PNG self-government in 1973 and independence in 1975.
Encouraged involvement or support for international agreements on environmental, heritage and human rights issues. Greater active participation in the UN, sucha s signing conventions.
Wanted to establish Australia as an independent nation (away from USA and UK) Took initiatives to improve relations with communist nations such as China, East Germany, North Vietnam and North Korea. Whitlam visited China as Prime Minister in 1973.
Condemned South Africa’s government’s apartheid regime. Refused to let racially selected sporting teams from South Africa. Exercised UN votes against South Africa. Opposed the French nuclear testing in the Pacific. Australia, NZ, Fiji succeeded at the international court of Justice in forcing France to cease atmospheric nuclear testing in the area.
Reforms that Promoted National Identity
Creations of Australian passports that did not refer to Australians as British subjects Creation of things of pride e.g.
• Australian Film Commission
• Australian Heritage Commission
• Australian National Parks and Wildlife Services
• A National Film and Television School
• Commencement on the building of the Australian National Gallery.
Move towards multiculturalism Abolishment of the White Australia Policy made way for a new immigration policy and improved relationships with Australia’s Asian neighbours.
Whitlam’s Problems
What problems did the Labor government face in 1974?
• There was an increase in unemployment
• The inflation rate increased substantially because the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) reduced oil supply to Western nations.
• Wages increased too quickly which resulted in increased unemployment – because companies would have made less and less profit and therefore would have cut jobs.
• Food prices rose
• Rex Connor was forced to resign after the Loans Affair, after he, in the attempt to ensure Australian ownership of the country’s resources, lied to Parliament when asked whether he was still trying to gather funds. It was found on a telex sent to Khemlani that Connor was still trying to negotiate loans, three days after the Australian government told him to end negotiations. He had misled the federal government.
• The newspaper reports of Jim Cairns and Juni Morosi having an affair. “My Love for Juni” expressing his admiration of her intellect had negative connotations. Whitlam sacked Cairns after Cairns lied in federal government about giving a Melbourne businessman 2.5% commission if he succeeded in gaining a US$500 million loan.
• These scandals made Whitlam’s government seem incompetent and that Whitlam was not controlling his ministers well. Connors and Cairns lost their positions in the Whitlam government because they lied to the Federal government over loans issues.
What were the causes and evidence of Australia’s economic problems around 1974?
• The causes of Australia’s economic problems around 1974is the increased price of petrol and the over-expenditure by the Whitlam government to fulfil its promises. The evidence for this includes: food prices increasing, growing unemployment because of booming wage increases.
Whitlam’s Problems with the Senate
• Throughout its 3 years in power, the Whitlam government was faced with the problem of a hostile senate, which meant it could not be guaranteed that its bills would be passed. In 1974, Whitlam called a double dissolution in the hope that Labor might win a majority in the Senate. However this did not occur with the Labor Party and the Coalition having an equal number of Senators.
• This situation was made worse after two Labor Senators resigned. The preimiers of NSW and QLD broke with custom and replaced these Senators with men who supported the Liberal Party. This meant that the Liberal/Country Party Coalition had more Senators than Labor and could block Labor Bills every time.
• Things got particularly bad for the Whitlam government when the Budget was introduced on 19 August 1975. Malcolm Fraser, the Liberal Party leader decided to defer the vote on Supply in the Senate which meant that Whitlam’s government only had enough money to govern until November 1975. The Liberals did this because they wanted to force Whitlam to hold an early election.
It was Gough Whitlam who recommended to the Queen that she appoint John Kerr as Governor-General. Looking at Kerr’s background, why would Whitlam have done this?
• Kerr was extremely intelligent and very qualified – he had a law degree and had been very influential positions such as Chief Justice of the NSW Supreme Court, and was active in Labor Party politics, which shows that he was a Labor supporter.
As Governor General, Kerr had RESERVE POWERS regarding the Australian Constitution. What did the following suggest that he should do with these powers?
Malcolm Fraser
• Wished for Kerr to sack Whitlam and his government.
Bob Ellicott – Shadow (Liberal Party) Attorney General (Minister responsible for legal matters)
• Advised Kerr that he had the right to sack the Whitlam government if the government could not guarantee supply.
Sir Garfield Barwick – Chief Justice of the High Court
• Kerr asked Barwick about the reserve powers of the Constitution and asked whether he should use them to dismiss Whitlam or not.
Gough Whitlam (Note: Whitlam never actually got the chance to speak with Kerr)
• He wanted to ask the Governor-General to hold a half-Senate election. Perhaps the ALP could win control of the Senate and allow supply to go through.
How did John Kerr justify his decision to dismiss the Whitlam Government on November 11 1975?
• John Kerr justified his decision to dismiss the Whitlam Government by saying that the Whitlam Government could not guarantee supply and because Whitlam did not want to hold a double dissolution.
What arguments were used by those Australians who opposed the Dismissal? Why do you think some people supported Kerr’s decision?
Those who opposed the Dismissal of the Whitlam Government believed that:
• It was not just for someone who the Australian public voted for could get kicked out by a person which the public did not elect.
• John Kerr had other options, such as request that the Senate pass or reject the money bill, not just block it, or call a half-Senate Election if requested by the P.M, and did not have to initiate such drastic actions.
• The way the John Kerr dismissed Whitlam was unfair, as he consulted Malcolm Fraser and others EXCEPT Whitlam when making his decision.
• Some people supported Kerr’s decision because of the high unemployment and high inflation under the Whitlam government. The Whitlam government could not get money to run the country.
Given the unpopularity of the Dismissal, why do you think the Labor Party was so badly beaten in the December 1975 election?
• The Labor Party was so badly beaten in the December 1975 election because the voting public wanted the economy that suffered during the Whitlam Government to become better. The economy had suffered, bringing higher unemployment and inflation, during the Whitlam Government, and the public thought that the economy would improve under Fraser.
Whitlam’s Legacy
• Believed in bettering the lives and rights of migrants, women and Aborigines. E.g. The Family Law Act 1975 removed the stigma and public perception that women were the parties to blame in marriages ending in divorce. The Whitlam government introduced the policy of self-determination, which gave Aborigines more freedom in choosing how to live their lives. Under the Whitlam Government, migrants settled into Australian society better as the Whitlam government encouraged support for migrants through radio programs in community languages
• Made steps towards multiculturalism and improved Australia’s international reputation due to the abolishment of the remaining White Australia policy and strengthening of ties between Asian countries and Australia as Whitlam’s policy made Australia seem like not as much of a racist country as before.
• Gave recognition to the arts and put emphasis on education by making university free.
• The establishment of Medicare, which, to this day, has remained in place.
• The development of a more independent foreign policy.
• Whitlam championed support of human rights, conservation and the environment in the international arena.
What Whitlam Failed to do:
• Establish a cohesive ministry – the Loans Affair and economic scandals involving his ministers showed that Whitlam did not have total control of those beneath him.
• Prioritise spending and as a result of his over-expenditure, inflation and prices rose and had a heavy impact on Australian society.
TOPIC FOUR: AUSTRALIA’S SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD; 1950s
Australian Youth and Fashion in the 1950s
Bodgies and Widgies
• Bodgies – Male
• Widgies – Female
• “Bodgies and widgies” in the 1950s dictated that everyone had to look the same. Their clothes were similar in shape and colour, much like a uniform so they could be identified. Fitting in was important to them.
• These young people developed a violent reputation and fought not only with each other, but also with the police and the Italian and Greek migrants.
• They admired “rock’n’roll” bands like Bill Haley and the Comets, Elvis Presley and Johnny O’Keefe.
• American songs and films influenced their preferences in clothing, hairstyles, attitudes and music.
• The rest of society treated bodgies and widgies differently because they were seen as trouble-stirring rebels.
Rock ‘N’ Roll
• More conservative members of the community criticised Rock ‘n’ Roll because performers of this genre of music were seen as sexually provocative, dressed obscenely and the conservative members of society were afraid that more and more teenagers would turn into “bodgies and widgies”, would behave more outrageously and live a dangerous lifestyle, and not attend Church as much.
• The “Wild One” was Johnny O’Keefe and he was one of the first performers in Australia through which the Australian rock music industry was born. He also launched the show “Six O’Clock Rock” which brought rock artists such as Col Joye and Johnny Rebb to TV screens. He increased Rock ‘N’ Roll’s popularity in Australia.
• The TV played an extremely crucial role in the promotion of popular music because it brought music from places such as America as well as Australia itself to audiences at the time.
• Religion was changing during this decade because Australian Churches saw the increasing popularity of rock ‘n’ roll and social trends as a threat to religion. Church attendance declined.
• In 1959, American evangelist Billy Graham arrived and toured Australia, preaching the importance of family values and the meaning of marriage.
The Car
• The increased use of cars in the 1950s changed Australian lives and Australian living patterns in the following ways:
o Most people were willing to move away from public transport such as rail and tram lines because the use of cars allowed workers (majority being men at the time) to drive to work.
o The car had an impact on suburbs as fields of orchards made way for brick, timber and fibro homes on their own block of land.
o Australia become more mobile and families used the car and places such as shops, sporting venues were more accessible.
o The car allowed many families to drive to holiday destinations.
Entertainment in the 1950s
Australian TV
• TV was introduced in Australia in 1956 just before the Melbourne Olympic Games.
• TV was especially popular with young Australians whom embraced TV and the new cultural influences TV came with.
• All the most popular shows came from the USA and included “I love Lucy” and “77 Sunset Strip”.
• Five ways which TV affected Australian society were:
o Gave Australians an insight into American culture.
o TV advertising encouraged people to buy products.
o TV made people more aware of issues and current world affairs of those times.
o TV improved communication around the world.
o When TV arrived, people did not go to the movies as much as before.
1950s Cinema
• American culture influenced Australia in different ways which include:
o The many Australian TV shows which dominated Australian television making Australians aware of the culture of the Americans which included American music, dance and TV.
• American films were popular in Australia because they were:
o In brilliant colours
o Were promoted with large, colourful film posters
o Publicised by film actors.
• By 1952, 74% of all films imported to Australia were from the USA.
• Movies like “The Wild One” and “Rebel Without a Cause” appealed to teenagers.
• Popular American stars of the 1950s included Marlon Brando who helped popularise levis and James Dean who starred in “Rebel Without a Cause”, a film which showed a generation of young people rejecting the values of their parents. Marilyn Monroe was very popular, also.
Sport in the 1950s
Successful Australian Sports Stars in the 1950s
• Lew Hoad and Ken Rosewell, both tennis champions.
• Jimmy Carruthers who was a boxing champion.
• John Landy who became the second person in the world to break the four minute mile.
The 1956 Olympics
• Were so significant for Australia because Australia was given international recognition for its sporting achievements and was the first Olympics to be held in the Southern Hemisphere.
• It was a major event in Australia during the 1950s.
Why Sport Became More Widely Popular in the 1950s
• Because of increased wealth of Australians in the 1950s gave more time and money for Australians for sport.
• TV heightened many sports’ profiles, and governments and local councils promoted sport through the construction of sport facilities such as swimming pools.
• The Melbourne Olympic Games were held in 1956 was an exciting time for Australians and heightened the profile of sports and athletes.
• The success of Australian sportsmen and sportswomen made sport more widely popular in the 1950s.
Australia, Still Quite a Conservative Society
• Despite massive social change Australia underwent in the 1950s, evidence suggests that Australia, at the time, was still a conservative society. For example:
o Church and local clubs still exerted a lot of influence on the community.
o Women were encouraged, by the government, to have large families and it was this ideal of child-rearing that reinforced the idea that the place of a women was in the home and family; men were seen as the breadwinners who went to work. Newspapers and women’s magazines at the time affirmed the virtues of motherhood and idealised the vision of family life.
o Sex roles were reiterated by advertisements showing women cooking and caring for babies (thus, showing women that their place was in the home).
o Divorce was difficult.
o Conservative people did not accept rock ‘n’ roll and bodgies and widgies.
Topic Summary
During the 1950s write 1-3 sentences summarising Australia’s position regarding:
• Immigration
o In the 1950s, the Australian government encouraged European migrants, including migrants from non-English speaking countries, to boost Australia’s population.
• Housing and Technology
o In the 1950s, technological advancements made life in the home easier. Fridges, the lawn mower, and the TV are examples, with the TV influencing leisure and fridges making cooking easier.
o The trend of people living away from the city centre and in larger homes.
• Cars
o During the 1950s, the car was becoming increasingly popular and allowed freer transport and more leisure options.
• Relations with Britain
o Australia’s relationship with Britain was still strong and Australia held the monarchy with high regard.
• Relations with America
o During the 1950s, Australia strengthened its bonds with the USA because of the fear of communism and this is shown by the signing of the ANZUS treaty and support of the Korean War.
Outline the main ways that America influenced Australian culture in the 1950s.
• 74% of movies coming into Australia were from the USA.
• Music – Rock ‘n’ Roll and big American stars such as Elvis Presley.
• Television dominated by American shows.
• Fashion – leather jackets, jeans, the fashion which teenagers picked up.
• USA changed the behaviour of Australian teenagers �* Bodgies and widgies are examples.
• Fads and trends being adopted by Australians.
• New food (particularly fast foods) such as hamburgers and hot dogs.
Looking back, how do you think Australia’s identity has been affected by the changes that occurred in the 1950s?
• TV shows from America influencing Australian people and their behaviour.
• Australia still maintains a strong alliance with USA.
• Fashion – Australia has adopted of America’s fashion trends.
• Music – Rock ‘n’ Roll music.
• The beginning of MULTICULTURALISM in Australia where a large number of non-English speaking migrants came to Australia from Europe.
• Famous Australian icons such as the Victa lawnmower by which many people affiliate Australia with.
