Modern Hot Chic
Member
Is anyone interested in forming an on line study group to help each other out with this subject? As you know, the HSC is looming, and I thought we could all help each other out.
-
Finished your HSC? Check out our University Discussion, Non-School forums or help out next year's HSC students! -
YOU can help the next generation of students in the community! Share your trial papers and notes on our Notes & Resources page
On line Study Group (2 Viewers)
- Thread starter Modern Hot Chic
- Start date
Modern Hot Chic
Member
I do WW1....we didn't get much on it.......
Modern Hot Chic
Member
OK, I do Germany, WW1 and Arab - Israeli. Have you all written syllabus summaries for WW1? If not, do you want to do that together?
What parts about WW1 do you know the best?
Scott, do you want to do Germany with me? Or do you want to do practice essays together?
What parts about WW1 do you know the best?
Scott, do you want to do Germany with me? Or do you want to do practice essays together?
launcher169
Lord of Chaos
im interested - im doing WW1 (obviously) Russia (1917-1945) and Arab-Israeli
Modern Hot Chic
Member
well, launcher, do you want to help do a WW1 syllabus summary
and Arab- Israeli?
and Arab- Israeli?
Hey scotty...i'm doing indochina..i have notes on all the dotpoints but no quotes...do you know where i could find some...our teacher slipped a disk in the last few weeks so we got zero input. anyway...if you want my notes you can have them
Modern Hot Chic
Member
Arab - Israeli Key Features
Whoever is doing this topic, please contribute and add to previous Key Features if you can...help each other out!
THE CREATION OF ISRAEL
The creation of Israel initiated a whole new phase in the Arab - Israeli conflict. Indeed, the establishment brought about greater hostility among Arab nations, thus inflicting increased terrorist attacks. The only solution for the Arabs was war, hence the breakout of the War of Independence on the 15th May 1948. The aim of the Arabs was to wipe out the state, and prevent it from ever re - establishing. However, the Arabs were defeated as a result of the periodic intervals which were consequence of the UN truces that were put into effect. These intervals gave way for the Israeli to order some armaments from the Soviets. It was these time frames which ultimately helped Israel to win the war, thus implementing fear in the minds of the Arabs, because those who survived to flee, forced to become refugees in 'their' country. The victory of the Israelis secured the creation of Israel.
The creation of a Jewish stat had great effects for Jews in Arab countries. Jews either fled or well expelled from Muslim countries, fleeing to their promised land. This meant a dramatic increase in the Jewish immigration rate. However, this introduce the problem relating to the largely diversity in Jewish customs, cultures and languages. However, all in all, the creation of Israel established a new image of Jews. The victory in the 19498 war portrayed the Jews as strong and determined, and displayed the ability of Jews to survive in an area where they were surrounded by Arabs.
The creation of Israel brought about increased hostility amongst the neighboring countries. It initiated failure to recognize the right of Israel to exist, and after their defeat in the 1948 war, Arab countries refused to sign any form of peace treaty with the Jewish state. A further discouragement for the Arabs was the repetitive interference of the super powers, during the course of and after the official establishment of Israel. Arab countries were also hostile to the Soviets due to the supplies which it provided to Israel during the war. Ever since the creation of Israel, with a few exceptions in relation to the peace process, the Arab countries have been solely committed to the destruction of Israel.
For the Arab population in Palestine, the traditional Palestine had ceased to exist in May 1948. The Arabs of Palestine believed that, through the creation of Israel, their biblical rights had been ignored. It has been a firm belief of Palestinian historians that a Palestinian Arab state had not emerged because Israel had prevented it. On the other hand, Israeli historians hold the belief that a Palestinian stat DID emerge in the area which was allocated by the United Nations General Assembly - an expanded Jordan, as Israeli historians have called it.
ALSO
Refugee camps grew in numbers
Strengthened nationalism
Created political instability and challenged rule such as Egyptian monarchy
Created a Jewish homeland
Palestinians fled
Significance of the rise of pan – Arab nationalism and Gamal Abdul Nassar
The seeds of pan – Arab nationalism were planted in July 1952 when the army led the Free Officers movement in an attempt to overthrow the ineffective King Farouk. As a result, General Naguib became president. However, the real source of influence during this overturn of power came from Colonel Gamal Abdul Nassar. Thus, in 1954, Nassar was elected President of Egypt. Nassar aimed for Egyptian independence – that is, to be free of British rule, an implementation of an economic reform program and he promoted the unity of all Arab countries.
As a form of retaliation, or payback for their defeat in the 1948 war, Nassar encouraged Palestinians within the Gaza Strip to attack Israeli civilians and destroy their property. He also armed a group of guerrilla fighters, the fedayeen (self – sacrifices) who, between 1950 and 1956 killed more than 360 Israelis.
A part of Nassar’s economic / agricultural policy, he wished to build the Aswan Dam over the River Nile. In October 1955, the Soviet Union had promised him money to do this, as well as the US and Britain. However, when Nassar began to purchase armaments from Czechoslovakia after months of trying unsuccessfully to purchase from the US (after a disastrous attack by Israeli forces in February 1955), the US and Britain decided to punish Nassar by withdrawing their financial support.
In July 1956 Nassar nationalized the Suez Canal. This meant that any money raised would go to the building of the Aswan Dam. This caused a conflict of interests because Britain and France wanted the Canal controlled by an international board. Egypt had previously blocked off Israel’s access to the Gulf of Aquba, which prevented Israel from entering the Suez Canal. This led to Israel’s support of the Palestinians.
With the growing concern about the strengthening powers of the USSR, and the belief that Nassar should be stopped while trying to recapture the Canal, Britain, France and Israel began to plan a conspiracy. This conspiracy was to launch an attack on Egypt. Thus, on the 29th October 1956, 100 000 Israeli troops were mobilized and, supported by French aircraft, attacked Egypt by the way of the Sinai Desert. Within days the Israelis had managed to capture the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula. Physically, victory was awarded to France, Britain and Israel, who had captured the West Bank, occupied the Canal Zone on the 5th November, and gained access to the Suez Canal for Israeli ships.
However, world support was diversified toward Egypt. Thus, Nassar’s popularity grew, and he was seen by many as the champion of the Arab world.
The rise of pan – Arab nationalism and Gamal Abdul Nassar was greatly affected by the Suez Crisis of 1956. Indeed, it had a dramatic impact on the 1967 war and created a rift between the Arab worlds, preventing them from achieving common goals. In early 1958, Syrian political leaders and Nassar strived for a union between the two countries. However, the countries saw themselves too diverse in their ways – and the Syrians loathed the idea of being governed by Egypt. Since Syria’s political separation from Egypt in 1961, the two
ALSO
1957 – Ba”th party gained power in Syria through Coop
1963 – Ba”th patty gained powered in Iraq
United Arab Republic – Nassar president, ‘58
1961 – Union collapsed, Syria cooped twice in three years
1951 - Suez, didn’t allow – Tiran Straight Blocked
Creation, aims, methods and effectiveness of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) from 1964
The Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) was formed in 1964 under the leadership of Ahamad Shuqairir, who was a client of Nassar. This organization was established by Nassar in attempt to control the fedayeen groups, whom Nassar feared would drag Egypt into another war with Israel.
The PLO was an umbrella organization, consisting of the Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA) and later the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) established in the 196s and Fatah which was established in the late 1950s who held the belief that the only way to liberate Palestine was through the use of force. The key aim of the PLO was to liberate Palestine from its Zionist “colonial oppressions”, using the method of ‘armed struggle’, when this was necessary, and to create an independent state. King Hussein of Jordan strongly opposed the creation of the PLO, believing that the organization posed a majour threat to Jordan as half of its population was Palestinian.
In 1969, Yassar Arfat, the leader of Fatah, took control of the PLO, due to the total lack of faith in Nassar’s leadership – for the past five years the PLO had proved ineffective due to its dominance by Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia, in achieving its goals. The PLO now adopted violence as its key method to liberate Palestine. The PLO carried out terrorist attacks, with its headquarters based in Jordan.
King Hussein, plagued with the fear that the PLO could threaten his rule over the Palestinians and cause acts of Israeli retaliation on Jordan, arrested many members and closed down operations, expelling the PLO. As such, Jordan came under attack by both strong forces: the PLO and the Israelis. This was the beginning of the Six Day War. The War began with a pre – emptive air strike which rewarded the Israelis with the element of surprise. This was followed by an equally successful ground assault which last until the 10th June, when the UN ordered a ceasefire. But the war had proved victorious for Israel in many ways; she had succeeded in recapturing the Golan Heights, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and more land after defeating the Arab armies.
In 1968, the Palestine National Charter was established, calling for the destruction of Israel. This Charter included the famous ‘4 Nos’: No peace, no recognition, no negotiations and insistence on the rights of the Palestinian People in their own country.
When Resolution 242 was proposed, this document was flatly rejected by the PLO due to the fact that it only referred to the Arab refugees and did not recognize the rights of the Palestinians to self – determination.
In 1974 at the Rabat Conference, the PLO was officially recognized as the sole representative of the Palestinian people. The real significance of this recognition was that King Hussein was forced to acknowledge Palestinian rights to the West Bank. This conference resulted in a diplomatic triumph for the PLO which avenged the defeat of Black September in 1970. ‘I have come bearing an olive branch, and a freedom fighter’s gun. Do not let the olive branch fall from my hand.’
Whoever is doing this topic, please contribute and add to previous Key Features if you can...help each other out!
THE CREATION OF ISRAEL
The creation of Israel initiated a whole new phase in the Arab - Israeli conflict. Indeed, the establishment brought about greater hostility among Arab nations, thus inflicting increased terrorist attacks. The only solution for the Arabs was war, hence the breakout of the War of Independence on the 15th May 1948. The aim of the Arabs was to wipe out the state, and prevent it from ever re - establishing. However, the Arabs were defeated as a result of the periodic intervals which were consequence of the UN truces that were put into effect. These intervals gave way for the Israeli to order some armaments from the Soviets. It was these time frames which ultimately helped Israel to win the war, thus implementing fear in the minds of the Arabs, because those who survived to flee, forced to become refugees in 'their' country. The victory of the Israelis secured the creation of Israel.
The creation of a Jewish stat had great effects for Jews in Arab countries. Jews either fled or well expelled from Muslim countries, fleeing to their promised land. This meant a dramatic increase in the Jewish immigration rate. However, this introduce the problem relating to the largely diversity in Jewish customs, cultures and languages. However, all in all, the creation of Israel established a new image of Jews. The victory in the 19498 war portrayed the Jews as strong and determined, and displayed the ability of Jews to survive in an area where they were surrounded by Arabs.
The creation of Israel brought about increased hostility amongst the neighboring countries. It initiated failure to recognize the right of Israel to exist, and after their defeat in the 1948 war, Arab countries refused to sign any form of peace treaty with the Jewish state. A further discouragement for the Arabs was the repetitive interference of the super powers, during the course of and after the official establishment of Israel. Arab countries were also hostile to the Soviets due to the supplies which it provided to Israel during the war. Ever since the creation of Israel, with a few exceptions in relation to the peace process, the Arab countries have been solely committed to the destruction of Israel.
For the Arab population in Palestine, the traditional Palestine had ceased to exist in May 1948. The Arabs of Palestine believed that, through the creation of Israel, their biblical rights had been ignored. It has been a firm belief of Palestinian historians that a Palestinian Arab state had not emerged because Israel had prevented it. On the other hand, Israeli historians hold the belief that a Palestinian stat DID emerge in the area which was allocated by the United Nations General Assembly - an expanded Jordan, as Israeli historians have called it.
ALSO
Refugee camps grew in numbers
Strengthened nationalism
Created political instability and challenged rule such as Egyptian monarchy
Created a Jewish homeland
Palestinians fled
Significance of the rise of pan – Arab nationalism and Gamal Abdul Nassar
The seeds of pan – Arab nationalism were planted in July 1952 when the army led the Free Officers movement in an attempt to overthrow the ineffective King Farouk. As a result, General Naguib became president. However, the real source of influence during this overturn of power came from Colonel Gamal Abdul Nassar. Thus, in 1954, Nassar was elected President of Egypt. Nassar aimed for Egyptian independence – that is, to be free of British rule, an implementation of an economic reform program and he promoted the unity of all Arab countries.
As a form of retaliation, or payback for their defeat in the 1948 war, Nassar encouraged Palestinians within the Gaza Strip to attack Israeli civilians and destroy their property. He also armed a group of guerrilla fighters, the fedayeen (self – sacrifices) who, between 1950 and 1956 killed more than 360 Israelis.
A part of Nassar’s economic / agricultural policy, he wished to build the Aswan Dam over the River Nile. In October 1955, the Soviet Union had promised him money to do this, as well as the US and Britain. However, when Nassar began to purchase armaments from Czechoslovakia after months of trying unsuccessfully to purchase from the US (after a disastrous attack by Israeli forces in February 1955), the US and Britain decided to punish Nassar by withdrawing their financial support.
In July 1956 Nassar nationalized the Suez Canal. This meant that any money raised would go to the building of the Aswan Dam. This caused a conflict of interests because Britain and France wanted the Canal controlled by an international board. Egypt had previously blocked off Israel’s access to the Gulf of Aquba, which prevented Israel from entering the Suez Canal. This led to Israel’s support of the Palestinians.
With the growing concern about the strengthening powers of the USSR, and the belief that Nassar should be stopped while trying to recapture the Canal, Britain, France and Israel began to plan a conspiracy. This conspiracy was to launch an attack on Egypt. Thus, on the 29th October 1956, 100 000 Israeli troops were mobilized and, supported by French aircraft, attacked Egypt by the way of the Sinai Desert. Within days the Israelis had managed to capture the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula. Physically, victory was awarded to France, Britain and Israel, who had captured the West Bank, occupied the Canal Zone on the 5th November, and gained access to the Suez Canal for Israeli ships.
However, world support was diversified toward Egypt. Thus, Nassar’s popularity grew, and he was seen by many as the champion of the Arab world.
The rise of pan – Arab nationalism and Gamal Abdul Nassar was greatly affected by the Suez Crisis of 1956. Indeed, it had a dramatic impact on the 1967 war and created a rift between the Arab worlds, preventing them from achieving common goals. In early 1958, Syrian political leaders and Nassar strived for a union between the two countries. However, the countries saw themselves too diverse in their ways – and the Syrians loathed the idea of being governed by Egypt. Since Syria’s political separation from Egypt in 1961, the two
ALSO
1957 – Ba”th party gained power in Syria through Coop
1963 – Ba”th patty gained powered in Iraq
United Arab Republic – Nassar president, ‘58
1961 – Union collapsed, Syria cooped twice in three years
1951 - Suez, didn’t allow – Tiran Straight Blocked
Creation, aims, methods and effectiveness of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) from 1964
The Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) was formed in 1964 under the leadership of Ahamad Shuqairir, who was a client of Nassar. This organization was established by Nassar in attempt to control the fedayeen groups, whom Nassar feared would drag Egypt into another war with Israel.
The PLO was an umbrella organization, consisting of the Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA) and later the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) established in the 196s and Fatah which was established in the late 1950s who held the belief that the only way to liberate Palestine was through the use of force. The key aim of the PLO was to liberate Palestine from its Zionist “colonial oppressions”, using the method of ‘armed struggle’, when this was necessary, and to create an independent state. King Hussein of Jordan strongly opposed the creation of the PLO, believing that the organization posed a majour threat to Jordan as half of its population was Palestinian.
In 1969, Yassar Arfat, the leader of Fatah, took control of the PLO, due to the total lack of faith in Nassar’s leadership – for the past five years the PLO had proved ineffective due to its dominance by Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia, in achieving its goals. The PLO now adopted violence as its key method to liberate Palestine. The PLO carried out terrorist attacks, with its headquarters based in Jordan.
King Hussein, plagued with the fear that the PLO could threaten his rule over the Palestinians and cause acts of Israeli retaliation on Jordan, arrested many members and closed down operations, expelling the PLO. As such, Jordan came under attack by both strong forces: the PLO and the Israelis. This was the beginning of the Six Day War. The War began with a pre – emptive air strike which rewarded the Israelis with the element of surprise. This was followed by an equally successful ground assault which last until the 10th June, when the UN ordered a ceasefire. But the war had proved victorious for Israel in many ways; she had succeeded in recapturing the Golan Heights, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and more land after defeating the Arab armies.
In 1968, the Palestine National Charter was established, calling for the destruction of Israel. This Charter included the famous ‘4 Nos’: No peace, no recognition, no negotiations and insistence on the rights of the Palestinian People in their own country.
When Resolution 242 was proposed, this document was flatly rejected by the PLO due to the fact that it only referred to the Arab refugees and did not recognize the rights of the Palestinians to self – determination.
In 1974 at the Rabat Conference, the PLO was officially recognized as the sole representative of the Palestinian people. The real significance of this recognition was that King Hussein was forced to acknowledge Palestinian rights to the West Bank. This conference resulted in a diplomatic triumph for the PLO which avenged the defeat of Black September in 1970. ‘I have come bearing an olive branch, and a freedom fighter’s gun. Do not let the olive branch fall from my hand.’
Heres an essay on Arab Israeli that was an assessment
Modern History Assessment
Arab Israeli Conflict
Outline and evaluate what you consider the 5 main reasons that account for the complexity of the Arab Israeli conflict by 1975 and the difficulty that has arisen in finding peace through negotiation in this conflict.
There is a multitude of reasons as to why peace has not been found within the Arab Israeli conflict. But in particular, there are five main ares that have made finding peace an impossibility. These five main areas are the use of war, the emergence of splinter groups, the superpower involvement, military involvement, and of course the attitude that Israel took to the idea of co existence.
Finding a solution was near impossible due to the use of war and aggression from both sides. Neither side was prepared to use means of peace making and believed that the side with the best military in place would win. Israel were particularly uncooperative refusing to divide up the land. Naturally the leadership changed during this period also affected the peace process. Israel were totally uninterested in bargaining with the land. War was a major factor as to why peace has not been obtained.
The first war began as a civil conflict between Palestinian Jews and Arabs following the United Nations recommendation of Nov. 29, 1947, to partition Palestine, then still under British mandate, into an Arab state and a Jewish state. Fighting quickly spread as Arab guerrillas attacked Jewish settlements and communication links to prevent implementation of the UN plan. Many wars followed such as the War of Independence, Yom Kippur, The Suez Crisis and the Six Day War.
In 1948, there were approximately 860,000 Palestinians inside today's Israel. About 700,000 were driven out or fled during the fighting that followed the declaration of Israeli statehood. The Palestinian population of Jerusalem went from 75,000 to 3,500; of Jaffa from 70,000 to 3,600; of Haifa from 71,000 to 2,900; of Lydda-Ramle from 35,000 to 2,000; of Tiberias from 5,300 to zero. All refugees lost their property . The 160,000 Palestinians still in Israel in 1949 when the fighting stopped lost another 250,000 acres. The Palestinians in Israel were left without resources or strong leaders. In fact three quarters of a million Palestinians half the population became refugees, fleeing Israel to the West Bank, The Gaza Strip, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Iraq.
1964 the Arab states created the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). While it was supposed to represent the Palestinians, in reality it represented the views of President Nasser of Egypt, who guided the formation of the PLO.The PLO includes different political and armed groups with varying ideological orientations. Yasser Arafat is the leader of Fatah, the main group, and has been PLO chairman since 1968. The other major groups are the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) and, in the occupied territories, the Palestine Peoples Party (PPP). Despite factional differences, the majority of Palestinians regard the PLO as their representative.
The PLO’s first leader made wild and irresponsible threats to drive Israelis into the sea, and had little support among Palestinians for he was seen as a puppet of the Egyptians. In the 1960s Palestinian students began to form their own organizations independent of control by Arab governments (although the Syrians, Libyans, and Iraqis continued to fund and control particular groups). Yasser Arafat founded an independent Palestinian-run party called Fatah. He is said to have the backing, for most of the recent past, of about 80% of the Palestinian people. Fatah is one part of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation and is led by Yasser Arafat. When first formed in 1958, its aim was to fight the state of Israel with violence. Since 1988 Arafat has renounced these methods and sees the only way to gain a state of Palestine is by negotiation over land. He has difficulty controlling the more extremist elements of the Palestinian cause, the Hamas and the Hezbollah, both Islamic extremist groups. With such extremist “splinter” groups in place it was no wonder that finding peace through negotiation has not been an option in this conflict.
Throughout the years 1950-1975 the two opposing sides very rarely attempted to negotiate peace. These splinter groups created further problems, as well as the Israelis who continued to refuse to cooperate. Conciliation Committees were put into place but had very little effect as both sides would not cooperate with the committee. In reality there was no “real” attempt to negotiate peace.
After coming to power in Egypt in late 1970, President Anwar Sadat indicated to UN envoy Gunnar Jarring that he was willing to sign a peace agreement with Israel in exchange for the return of Egyptian territory lost in 1967. When this was ignored by Israel and the US, Egypt and Syria decided to act to break the political stalemate. They attacked Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights in October 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur. The surprise attack caught Israel off guard, and the Arabs achieved some early military victories.
Military support was one of the most inflammatory roles of the two superpowers in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Throughout the conflict, there was a tendency for the superpowers to court alliances through offers to weaponry, both as a means of providing security for clients and of manipulating the regionally balance of power. It is not unreasonable to say that without the superpowers' policies of the transferring military resources to their Middle Eastern allies, the entire Arab-Israeli conflict may never have reached the scale it did over the course of 1948-79.
The Superpower involvement in the Arab Israeli involvement contributed towards the further aggravation of the Arab-Israel conflict between 1948-79.
The Palestinian Arabs then backed their cause with military assistance. This led to the Palestinian Arabs having someone else to fight their fight. This made peace even harder to obtain as the conflict was no longer between two sides. Many more groups became involved, and the original cause of this major conflict was forgotten. Both sides were prepared to use aggression and war as a means and were prepared to battle it out until the end.
The idea of coexistence was not openly welcomed by Israel. Camp David was introduced as a means to negotiate over the land. It was unsuccessful as Israel refused to co operate at Camp David. Egypt began peace initiatives with Israel in late 1977, when Egyptian President Sadat visited Jerusalem. A year later, with the help of U.S. President Jimmy Carter, terms of peace between Egypt and Israel were negotiated at Camp David. Most Arab countries opposed the treaty. The PLO continued to refuse Israel’s right to exist. The Camp David agreement went some way to solving the problem on the Sinai and the Gulf for Israel, the other problems remained. Only President Sadat of Egypt showed interest in Camp David, so of course peace was not obtained.
The peace through negotiation process was very unsuccesful. By now, no one was interested in using peace and each side wanted to use their military to solve all of their problems. By using the military instead of peace through negotiation, it was seen as far more diplomatic.
These five main reasons account for the complication of the Arab Israeli conflict, and why peace has not obtained. Of course peace was not going to be obtained when either side didn’t want to use peace. In fact peace through negotiation was never used until 1978, and by this time the involvement of other groups had already blown the problem out of proportion, and the everyone had forgotten why they were fighting in the first place.
Bibliography
Arab Israeli Conflict - Basic Facts
http://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict.asp
Myths & Facts Online
A Guide to the Arab-Israeli Conflict
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mftoc.html
TIME Trail:
The Arab-Israeli Conflict
http://www.time.com/time/europe/timetrails/israel/
Excel Hsc Modern History
Ron Ringer
Modern History Assessment
Arab Israeli Conflict
Outline and evaluate what you consider the 5 main reasons that account for the complexity of the Arab Israeli conflict by 1975 and the difficulty that has arisen in finding peace through negotiation in this conflict.
There is a multitude of reasons as to why peace has not been found within the Arab Israeli conflict. But in particular, there are five main ares that have made finding peace an impossibility. These five main areas are the use of war, the emergence of splinter groups, the superpower involvement, military involvement, and of course the attitude that Israel took to the idea of co existence.
Finding a solution was near impossible due to the use of war and aggression from both sides. Neither side was prepared to use means of peace making and believed that the side with the best military in place would win. Israel were particularly uncooperative refusing to divide up the land. Naturally the leadership changed during this period also affected the peace process. Israel were totally uninterested in bargaining with the land. War was a major factor as to why peace has not been obtained.
The first war began as a civil conflict between Palestinian Jews and Arabs following the United Nations recommendation of Nov. 29, 1947, to partition Palestine, then still under British mandate, into an Arab state and a Jewish state. Fighting quickly spread as Arab guerrillas attacked Jewish settlements and communication links to prevent implementation of the UN plan. Many wars followed such as the War of Independence, Yom Kippur, The Suez Crisis and the Six Day War.
In 1948, there were approximately 860,000 Palestinians inside today's Israel. About 700,000 were driven out or fled during the fighting that followed the declaration of Israeli statehood. The Palestinian population of Jerusalem went from 75,000 to 3,500; of Jaffa from 70,000 to 3,600; of Haifa from 71,000 to 2,900; of Lydda-Ramle from 35,000 to 2,000; of Tiberias from 5,300 to zero. All refugees lost their property . The 160,000 Palestinians still in Israel in 1949 when the fighting stopped lost another 250,000 acres. The Palestinians in Israel were left without resources or strong leaders. In fact three quarters of a million Palestinians half the population became refugees, fleeing Israel to the West Bank, The Gaza Strip, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Iraq.
1964 the Arab states created the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). While it was supposed to represent the Palestinians, in reality it represented the views of President Nasser of Egypt, who guided the formation of the PLO.The PLO includes different political and armed groups with varying ideological orientations. Yasser Arafat is the leader of Fatah, the main group, and has been PLO chairman since 1968. The other major groups are the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) and, in the occupied territories, the Palestine Peoples Party (PPP). Despite factional differences, the majority of Palestinians regard the PLO as their representative.
The PLO’s first leader made wild and irresponsible threats to drive Israelis into the sea, and had little support among Palestinians for he was seen as a puppet of the Egyptians. In the 1960s Palestinian students began to form their own organizations independent of control by Arab governments (although the Syrians, Libyans, and Iraqis continued to fund and control particular groups). Yasser Arafat founded an independent Palestinian-run party called Fatah. He is said to have the backing, for most of the recent past, of about 80% of the Palestinian people. Fatah is one part of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation and is led by Yasser Arafat. When first formed in 1958, its aim was to fight the state of Israel with violence. Since 1988 Arafat has renounced these methods and sees the only way to gain a state of Palestine is by negotiation over land. He has difficulty controlling the more extremist elements of the Palestinian cause, the Hamas and the Hezbollah, both Islamic extremist groups. With such extremist “splinter” groups in place it was no wonder that finding peace through negotiation has not been an option in this conflict.
Throughout the years 1950-1975 the two opposing sides very rarely attempted to negotiate peace. These splinter groups created further problems, as well as the Israelis who continued to refuse to cooperate. Conciliation Committees were put into place but had very little effect as both sides would not cooperate with the committee. In reality there was no “real” attempt to negotiate peace.
After coming to power in Egypt in late 1970, President Anwar Sadat indicated to UN envoy Gunnar Jarring that he was willing to sign a peace agreement with Israel in exchange for the return of Egyptian territory lost in 1967. When this was ignored by Israel and the US, Egypt and Syria decided to act to break the political stalemate. They attacked Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights in October 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur. The surprise attack caught Israel off guard, and the Arabs achieved some early military victories.
Military support was one of the most inflammatory roles of the two superpowers in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Throughout the conflict, there was a tendency for the superpowers to court alliances through offers to weaponry, both as a means of providing security for clients and of manipulating the regionally balance of power. It is not unreasonable to say that without the superpowers' policies of the transferring military resources to their Middle Eastern allies, the entire Arab-Israeli conflict may never have reached the scale it did over the course of 1948-79.
The Superpower involvement in the Arab Israeli involvement contributed towards the further aggravation of the Arab-Israel conflict between 1948-79.
The Palestinian Arabs then backed their cause with military assistance. This led to the Palestinian Arabs having someone else to fight their fight. This made peace even harder to obtain as the conflict was no longer between two sides. Many more groups became involved, and the original cause of this major conflict was forgotten. Both sides were prepared to use aggression and war as a means and were prepared to battle it out until the end.
The idea of coexistence was not openly welcomed by Israel. Camp David was introduced as a means to negotiate over the land. It was unsuccessful as Israel refused to co operate at Camp David. Egypt began peace initiatives with Israel in late 1977, when Egyptian President Sadat visited Jerusalem. A year later, with the help of U.S. President Jimmy Carter, terms of peace between Egypt and Israel were negotiated at Camp David. Most Arab countries opposed the treaty. The PLO continued to refuse Israel’s right to exist. The Camp David agreement went some way to solving the problem on the Sinai and the Gulf for Israel, the other problems remained. Only President Sadat of Egypt showed interest in Camp David, so of course peace was not obtained.
The peace through negotiation process was very unsuccesful. By now, no one was interested in using peace and each side wanted to use their military to solve all of their problems. By using the military instead of peace through negotiation, it was seen as far more diplomatic.
These five main reasons account for the complication of the Arab Israeli conflict, and why peace has not obtained. Of course peace was not going to be obtained when either side didn’t want to use peace. In fact peace through negotiation was never used until 1978, and by this time the involvement of other groups had already blown the problem out of proportion, and the everyone had forgotten why they were fighting in the first place.
Bibliography
Arab Israeli Conflict - Basic Facts
http://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict.asp
Myths & Facts Online
A Guide to the Arab-Israeli Conflict
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mftoc.html
TIME Trail:
The Arab-Israeli Conflict
http://www.time.com/time/europe/timetrails/israel/
Excel Hsc Modern History
Ron Ringer
Modern Hot Chic
Member
ROLE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE SUPERPOWERS IN RELATION TO EVENTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST
USA had a traditional alliance with Israelis and USSR with the Arabs – both supported the creation of Israel
USSR was the first to recognize Israel
ROLE:
Peace initiatives, particularly the USA.
Both Superpowers were involved in armistice agreements
USA with C.D of 1978 – 9
USA –Madrid Conference – 1991 (Bush)
Oslo accords – October 1993
Supporting client states – weapon supply and financial aid
Pressuring their client states to withhold force. E.b. Warned against pre – emptive strike in 1967
USA actively engaged in physical conflict in the Gulf War; though both were hesitant
Influencing economy; trade, preservation of oil interest, especially the USA.
Cold War issues in the Middle East. E.g. Bagdad Pact, 1955, Eisenhower Doctrine
Involved in regionial alliances – USSR promoted Arab cooperation
Tried to weaken enemy through manoevures in the Middle East
From late 1970s, early 1980s, USSR’s role in the Middle East decreased dramatically due to internal problems
OBJECTIVES:
Weaken influence of their Cold War rival (USSR vs USA) extended influence into the strategically important regions to secure trade and oil interests – especially for USA
USA – obtain support of domestic Jewish lobby and appease political sections of society
To restrict hostilities in the Middle East – contain conflict.
1948 – Establishment of Israel
USSR welcomed the idea of a Jewish state; rid itself of a ‘troublesome element’ – extending influence to the Middle East
USA wanted to ensure that Europe had access to the region’s oil for post- war reconstruction
1956
USA and USSR both opposed Britian, France and Israel
USA opposition to communism and expansion of Soviet influence in M.E
USA favoured to overthrow Nassar
USSR – providing arms to the Arabs & promoted the Novermber 1966 agreement between Syria and Egypt * anxious for success
1967
Neither superpower was prepared to intervene directly
USA had become sympathetic to Israel * increased economic and military aid.
USA had a traditional alliance with Israelis and USSR with the Arabs – both supported the creation of Israel
USSR was the first to recognize Israel
ROLE:
Peace initiatives, particularly the USA.
Both Superpowers were involved in armistice agreements
USA with C.D of 1978 – 9
USA –Madrid Conference – 1991 (Bush)
Oslo accords – October 1993
Supporting client states – weapon supply and financial aid
Pressuring their client states to withhold force. E.b. Warned against pre – emptive strike in 1967
USA actively engaged in physical conflict in the Gulf War; though both were hesitant
Influencing economy; trade, preservation of oil interest, especially the USA.
Cold War issues in the Middle East. E.g. Bagdad Pact, 1955, Eisenhower Doctrine
Involved in regionial alliances – USSR promoted Arab cooperation
Tried to weaken enemy through manoevures in the Middle East
From late 1970s, early 1980s, USSR’s role in the Middle East decreased dramatically due to internal problems
OBJECTIVES:
Weaken influence of their Cold War rival (USSR vs USA) extended influence into the strategically important regions to secure trade and oil interests – especially for USA
USA – obtain support of domestic Jewish lobby and appease political sections of society
To restrict hostilities in the Middle East – contain conflict.
1948 – Establishment of Israel
USSR welcomed the idea of a Jewish state; rid itself of a ‘troublesome element’ – extending influence to the Middle East
USA wanted to ensure that Europe had access to the region’s oil for post- war reconstruction
1956
USA and USSR both opposed Britian, France and Israel
USA opposition to communism and expansion of Soviet influence in M.E
USA favoured to overthrow Nassar
USSR – providing arms to the Arabs & promoted the Novermber 1966 agreement between Syria and Egypt * anxious for success
1967
Neither superpower was prepared to intervene directly
USA had become sympathetic to Israel * increased economic and military aid.
Modern Hot Chic
Member
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ASSAINATION OF YITZAK RABIN AND THE ELECTION OF NETANYHU OF 1996
Religious extremism led to the assassination of 1995
The assassin Yigal Amir was linked with extreme rightist groups in Israel
Critised Rabin for pursing the peace process
For extremesists Rabin had committed the ultimate act of betrayal in September when he signed the agreement ceding control of sections of the West Bank to the Palestinians
After Rabin’s assassination there was a revulsion in Israel against the extremism that led to the assassination
Benjamin Netanyahu’s slogan was ‘peace for security’ – Likud party
His victory made future for the Arab – Israeli – Palestinian relations uncertain
Close election victory – only won by 1%
He argued that terrorism was a weapon that could be successfully countered
On October 6th 1996 Netanyhu and Arafat, assisted by Clinton, began to discuss the Hebron agreement. This was about getting Jews to leave Hebron and the rest of the West Bank as stipulated by the OSLO accords.
The Hebron agreement was signed by Netanyhu and Arafat on January 15th 1997. Israel withdrew from Hebron and turned over control of 80% of it to the Palestinians
Hebron – 3 main significance: acceptance of Netanyhu and OSLO formula and
WHAT WAS THE OTHER?
Religious extremism led to the assassination of 1995
The assassin Yigal Amir was linked with extreme rightist groups in Israel
Critised Rabin for pursing the peace process
For extremesists Rabin had committed the ultimate act of betrayal in September when he signed the agreement ceding control of sections of the West Bank to the Palestinians
After Rabin’s assassination there was a revulsion in Israel against the extremism that led to the assassination
Benjamin Netanyahu’s slogan was ‘peace for security’ – Likud party
His victory made future for the Arab – Israeli – Palestinian relations uncertain
Close election victory – only won by 1%
He argued that terrorism was a weapon that could be successfully countered
On October 6th 1996 Netanyhu and Arafat, assisted by Clinton, began to discuss the Hebron agreement. This was about getting Jews to leave Hebron and the rest of the West Bank as stipulated by the OSLO accords.
The Hebron agreement was signed by Netanyhu and Arafat on January 15th 1997. Israel withdrew from Hebron and turned over control of 80% of it to the Palestinians
Hebron – 3 main significance: acceptance of Netanyhu and OSLO formula and
WHAT WAS THE OTHER?
Modern Hot Chic
Member
CAUSES OF THE EVENTS LEADING TO THE ISRAELI INVASION OF LEBANON AND THE COURSE OF THE WAR
CAUSES-
Attempted assaination of Israel ambassador, used as an immediate pretext for war
Destroy PLO bases and infrastructure
Make Northern Israeli settlements and villages safe from PLO raids – drive North
RECOTE SYRIAN INFLUENCE AND MISSILE SITES IN BEKKA VALLEY
Extremist bid to take land up to Litani River
Install friendly Christian gov’t which would negotiate with Israelis
Secure 15KM wide security zone
Prior invasion in 1978 – Reprisal Policy – ongoing cycle
COURSE OF THE WAR –
Israel invaded 6th June 1982
Bombs
Reached Beirut quickly
Ariel and artillery bombardment- continued 79 days
11th August – Israel agreed to US brokered ceasefire
Arafat and 9000 PLO fighters
Allowed safe passage out of Beirut – Tunisia, Syria, Iraq and Yemen.
CAUSES-
Attempted assaination of Israel ambassador, used as an immediate pretext for war
Destroy PLO bases and infrastructure
Make Northern Israeli settlements and villages safe from PLO raids – drive North
RECOTE SYRIAN INFLUENCE AND MISSILE SITES IN BEKKA VALLEY
Extremist bid to take land up to Litani River
Install friendly Christian gov’t which would negotiate with Israelis
Secure 15KM wide security zone
Prior invasion in 1978 – Reprisal Policy – ongoing cycle
COURSE OF THE WAR –
Israel invaded 6th June 1982
Bombs
Reached Beirut quickly
Ariel and artillery bombardment- continued 79 days
11th August – Israel agreed to US brokered ceasefire
Arafat and 9000 PLO fighters
Allowed safe passage out of Beirut – Tunisia, Syria, Iraq and Yemen.
Modern Hot Chic
Member
I'm trying to type up notes that we were given at school......
We we're given notes on "The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm", which syllabus point would nots on this go under?
We we're given notes on "The Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm", which syllabus point would nots on this go under?
welshi
Clearly unemployed again.
help me darlings! i do china for natstudy and there is NOTHING. i bombed out on that section in the trial and i'm panicking cos i have so many gaps, esp. on nanjing decade -jiangxi soviet period. HELP!
amm also doing indochina. will post my notes soon.
amm also doing indochina. will post my notes soon.
Found some in study notes that would be better organised then anything I would be able to come up with. Very comprehensive. If you don't want to download the whole zip then tell me which part of Indochina you need a quote for and I will find it in 'Nicholl's' work.
I take NO CREDIT FOR THIS. Its the work of 'Nicholl', and the whole zip containing these, and more can be found at http://www.boredofstudies.org/cours...n/2003_Modern_History_N_AllTopics_Nicholl.zip
I take NO CREDIT FOR THIS. Its the work of 'Nicholl', and the whole zip containing these, and more can be found at http://www.boredofstudies.org/cours...n/2003_Modern_History_N_AllTopics_Nicholl.zip
launcher169
Lord of Chaos
Here is a general summary of the wars
and Respect to Modern Hot Chick and 2muchwork
1947 - 1956
End of the British Mandate
• Feb 1947 Britain decided to hand the Palestine issue over to the UN
• Sep 1947 UNSCOP recommended partition
• Partition – 56% of the to Jews but only 33% of population
• UN voted on resolution 181 on o NOV 29, 1947.-33 in favor,13 against 10 absentations – vote passed
• British announced they would leave May 15, 1948
• 4p.m.,May 14, David Ben–Gurion proclaimed the state of Israel
Civil War
• Arab reaction was violence – in 12 days 80 Jews were killed
• Arab leader Abdel Kadir Husseini was killed in April, 1948- left the Arab cause without its best leader
• Jews better organised Haganah, Irgun and Stern. Gang formidable, fighting organizations, well led, well armed, and very determined.
• Main fighting along the road from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. Jerusalem under siege. Jews determined to raise the siege and clear the villages overlooking the road.
• April 9, 1948 – Deir Yassin, a village was attacked by the stern and Irgun gangs.
• Many Arabs killed. Survivors put on lorries and paraded in Jerusalem
• Arab leaders exaggerated the events at Deir Yassin for their own propaganda purposes, hoping to stiffen resistance. However it backfired as Arabs in the other villages fled in fear.
War of independence 1948-1949
• 4 Arab armies – Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon. All were disorganized and were dealt easily by Israel.
• The Trans-Jordanian Arab legion made significant gains in the west bank and east Jerusalem.
• UN sponsored a ceasefire, June 1948, during which Israel purchased arms from Czechoslovakia (the soviet union)
• Ben-Gurion critical of activities of extremists – forced the dissolution of the Irgun and stern gangs after two incidents:
- The Atalena Affairs – a ship arrived from France mid-June carrying weapons for the Irgun. The Haganah blew them up and arrested the Irgun activists.
- Assassination of Count Bernadotte – UN Peace mediator in Palestine, killed by Stern Gang as a British Agent too much in favor of partition.
• Arabs resumed war on 8th July 1948
• War ended in Feb. 1949 with an armistice signed between Egypt and Israel. Other countries soon followed
• However, no formal peace treaties were signed with Israel as that would be to acknowledge its existence.
Consequences of the 1948 war
• West Jerusalem in the hands of Israel though had been previously allocated to the Arabs.
• The west bank, annexed into the new kingdom of Jordan in 1950.
• The Gaza strip occupied and retained by Egypt.
• No land left for the Palestinians who were a homeless people.
• About 700000 Palestinians fled Israel, leaving about 160000 behind.
• Neighboring countries refused to cooperate with the UN to resettle the refugees.
• Anti Jewish violence increased in the Arab countries leading to a stream of Jewish immigration arriving into Israel and its population doubled in 5 years. The law of return in 1950 gave to ever Jew the right to immigrate to Israel.
• Israel benefited the most from the departure of the Palestinians – the Israeli government passed a law that banned the return of the Arabs to lands abandoned in the 1948 war. – 50% of the land of Israel – of 370 new Jewish settlements founded in 1948-1953, 350 were on absentee property.
The Superpowers in the 1940s
• Both the USA and the USSR voted for Resolution 181
• USA sympathetic to Holocaust victims and wanted to create a anti communist state in the Middle East.
• USSR provided Israel weapons through Czechoslovakia.
Rise of Arab Nationalism
• King Farouk in Egypt was overthrown by the Free Officers movement in Egypt in July, 1952. General Abdel Nasser second president in 1954.
• End of the British influence in Egypt and repairing the economy was the priority at this stage not the elimination of Israel.
• Development of the Feyadeen (Self-Sacrificers) guerilla units of the displaced Palestinians changed this view as they operated from camps in Egyptian territory.
• After the death of 238 Israelis during 1955 from Feyadeen raids, Israel attacked an Egyptian army base in Gaza killing 39.
• The Free Officer’s government changed its view of Israel and the USA and sought arms from the communist bloc and began to consider attacking Israel.
Suez Crisis – 1956
• Nasser had been seeking money from the USA to build the Aswan high dam for electricity and the control the flow of the Nile. The USA refused because of the Arm purchases from Czechoslovakia.
• Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal to use its profits to build the dam.
• Britain was concerned about its access to oil, Aden, Asia and east Africa.
• France was concerned about Egypt’s influence on anti-French rebels in Algeria.
• Israel was concerned about Egypt’s increasing military strength and wanted to hit Egypt before they became organized and proficient in war.
• These three countries colluded secretly to attack Israel.
• 29th October 1956 Israelis attacked Egypt and advanced to the Suez Canal.
• Britain, claiming the role of intermediary demanded that both stay 16 km away from the Suez Canal. Egypt refused as it meant a retreat from the Sinai and into their own territory.
• Britain and France attacked Egypt bombed airways and launched paratroopers.
• Egypt sank ships into the canal and blocked it.
• International crisis resulted with the USA threatening Britain, and Russia threatening to “flatten” Israel.
• Britain and France forced to withdraw troops and respect an international UN ceasefire.
Consequences of the 1956 war
• Nasser’s popularity in the Arab world soared. He had challenged the colonial powers and had not been defeated.
• Israelis army captured the Sinai Peninsula (although they were forced to hand it back in 1957) and the planting of UN troops on the Israeli-Egyptian border, and at sharam-el-sheikh ended the Feyadeen raids and opened up the gulf of Aquaba to Israeli shipping.
• End of European power in the Middle East. Britain was humiliated and France achieved nothing.
• The Soviet Union enhanced its reputation as a supporter of the Arabs against the colonial powers and was pleased to see the western powers divided.
• USA now furious since it saw the Soviet Union becoming the major power in the region.
Role of the Superpowers in the 1950s
• Soviet Union turned away from Israel and began to actively support the Arabs.
• USA maintained a low profile in the region concerned not to alienate the oil-rich Arab nations.
The Six-Day War June 5-10, 1967
• UN presence reduced Feyadeen activity across the Egypt-israel border, but they increased across the Lebanese, Syrian, and Jordanian borders.
• 1965 – PLO formed and organized raids – tensions increased.
• Israel hit back with reprisals.
• Anti-Israel Arab broadcasts increased on radio. Also critical of Nasser for his inactivity and ‘hiding behind the skirts’ of the UN expeditionary force (UNEF).
• April 1967 – a major border incident between Syria and Israel – full scale response by Israel – Nasser stood by.
Causes of the War
• Began 13th May, 1967 with Soviet intelligence report claiming that Israelis forces were massing on the Syrian border – report proved wrong later but stirred Nasser into action.
• Nasser advanced in the Sinai and ordered the UNEF to leave its positions on the border and at sharam-el-sheik to close the straits to Israeli shipping.
• Israel saw this as a cause of war.
• May 23 full mobilization order in Israel – critical as the economy was paralyzed as Israel’s military strength was based on its reserves.
• Both superpowers told their client states that their client states that they would not support a pre-emptive
• Israel saw this as a cause for war may 23 full mobilisation order in Israel Critical as the Economy was paralysed as Israel military strength was based on its Reserves.
• Both superpowers told the client states that they could not support a pre-emptive strike
The War
• 5th of June-Israeli War Planes attacked the airfields of Syria, Jordan, Egypt destroying most resources on the ground 400 Arab Planes were lost compared to 19 Israeli Planes
• Egyptians Forces all retreated to the Canal and were attacked in the Sinai by Israel
• Result of the war 12000 Egyptians killed 338 Israeli Killed,
• King Hussein of Jordan reluctantly entered the War as he was fearful of the Palestinian Camps and he was soon defeated by Israel
• 8th of June-victory over Jordan and Egypt.
• Israel swung north to attack Syria and gain control of the Golan heights and looked certain to advance to Damascus
• Soviet told American Israel must accept a Ceasefire or they would intervene sum were already painted in Egyptian colours.
• Israel agreed to a Cease Fire
Consequences of the War
• Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula, East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan and the Golan Heights these became known as the administrated territory [Israeli] and the occupied [Palestinian]
• Israel now controlled the Wailing Walls in East Jerusalem
• However the main result of the war was stalemate rather outright
• Israel now closed the Straits of Aqaba to Jordanian shipping the war polarised relations between the superpowers soviets believed that the USA and Israel had colluded secretly and now rearmed the Arab countries while America rearmed the Israel,
• Peace was no longer likely between Arab and Israel because the Arabs had established and aggressive tone no peace with Israel no recognition of Israel no negations with Israel and insistence with rights of the Palestine.
• November 1967 the UN passed resolution 242 calling for the withdrawal of the Israel from Territory occupied in recent conflict.
• In 1968 Nasser launched on Israel Positions on the West Bank of the Suez Canal and Israel Responded with Air Raids
• Soviet then supplied Egypt with SAMs and Crews operate them this meant than an Israel Air raid would lead to a direct conflict between Israel and the Soviet Union.
Escalation of the war
• Concerned that the US arranged cease fire in July 1970
• September 1970 Nasser died and was replaced by Anwar Sadat
and Respect to Modern Hot Chick and 2muchwork
1947 - 1956
End of the British Mandate
• Feb 1947 Britain decided to hand the Palestine issue over to the UN
• Sep 1947 UNSCOP recommended partition
• Partition – 56% of the to Jews but only 33% of population
• UN voted on resolution 181 on o NOV 29, 1947.-33 in favor,13 against 10 absentations – vote passed
• British announced they would leave May 15, 1948
• 4p.m.,May 14, David Ben–Gurion proclaimed the state of Israel
Civil War
• Arab reaction was violence – in 12 days 80 Jews were killed
• Arab leader Abdel Kadir Husseini was killed in April, 1948- left the Arab cause without its best leader
• Jews better organised Haganah, Irgun and Stern. Gang formidable, fighting organizations, well led, well armed, and very determined.
• Main fighting along the road from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. Jerusalem under siege. Jews determined to raise the siege and clear the villages overlooking the road.
• April 9, 1948 – Deir Yassin, a village was attacked by the stern and Irgun gangs.
• Many Arabs killed. Survivors put on lorries and paraded in Jerusalem
• Arab leaders exaggerated the events at Deir Yassin for their own propaganda purposes, hoping to stiffen resistance. However it backfired as Arabs in the other villages fled in fear.
War of independence 1948-1949
• 4 Arab armies – Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon. All were disorganized and were dealt easily by Israel.
• The Trans-Jordanian Arab legion made significant gains in the west bank and east Jerusalem.
• UN sponsored a ceasefire, June 1948, during which Israel purchased arms from Czechoslovakia (the soviet union)
• Ben-Gurion critical of activities of extremists – forced the dissolution of the Irgun and stern gangs after two incidents:
- The Atalena Affairs – a ship arrived from France mid-June carrying weapons for the Irgun. The Haganah blew them up and arrested the Irgun activists.
- Assassination of Count Bernadotte – UN Peace mediator in Palestine, killed by Stern Gang as a British Agent too much in favor of partition.
• Arabs resumed war on 8th July 1948
• War ended in Feb. 1949 with an armistice signed between Egypt and Israel. Other countries soon followed
• However, no formal peace treaties were signed with Israel as that would be to acknowledge its existence.
Consequences of the 1948 war
• West Jerusalem in the hands of Israel though had been previously allocated to the Arabs.
• The west bank, annexed into the new kingdom of Jordan in 1950.
• The Gaza strip occupied and retained by Egypt.
• No land left for the Palestinians who were a homeless people.
• About 700000 Palestinians fled Israel, leaving about 160000 behind.
• Neighboring countries refused to cooperate with the UN to resettle the refugees.
• Anti Jewish violence increased in the Arab countries leading to a stream of Jewish immigration arriving into Israel and its population doubled in 5 years. The law of return in 1950 gave to ever Jew the right to immigrate to Israel.
• Israel benefited the most from the departure of the Palestinians – the Israeli government passed a law that banned the return of the Arabs to lands abandoned in the 1948 war. – 50% of the land of Israel – of 370 new Jewish settlements founded in 1948-1953, 350 were on absentee property.
The Superpowers in the 1940s
• Both the USA and the USSR voted for Resolution 181
• USA sympathetic to Holocaust victims and wanted to create a anti communist state in the Middle East.
• USSR provided Israel weapons through Czechoslovakia.
Rise of Arab Nationalism
• King Farouk in Egypt was overthrown by the Free Officers movement in Egypt in July, 1952. General Abdel Nasser second president in 1954.
• End of the British influence in Egypt and repairing the economy was the priority at this stage not the elimination of Israel.
• Development of the Feyadeen (Self-Sacrificers) guerilla units of the displaced Palestinians changed this view as they operated from camps in Egyptian territory.
• After the death of 238 Israelis during 1955 from Feyadeen raids, Israel attacked an Egyptian army base in Gaza killing 39.
• The Free Officer’s government changed its view of Israel and the USA and sought arms from the communist bloc and began to consider attacking Israel.
Suez Crisis – 1956
• Nasser had been seeking money from the USA to build the Aswan high dam for electricity and the control the flow of the Nile. The USA refused because of the Arm purchases from Czechoslovakia.
• Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal to use its profits to build the dam.
• Britain was concerned about its access to oil, Aden, Asia and east Africa.
• France was concerned about Egypt’s influence on anti-French rebels in Algeria.
• Israel was concerned about Egypt’s increasing military strength and wanted to hit Egypt before they became organized and proficient in war.
• These three countries colluded secretly to attack Israel.
• 29th October 1956 Israelis attacked Egypt and advanced to the Suez Canal.
• Britain, claiming the role of intermediary demanded that both stay 16 km away from the Suez Canal. Egypt refused as it meant a retreat from the Sinai and into their own territory.
• Britain and France attacked Egypt bombed airways and launched paratroopers.
• Egypt sank ships into the canal and blocked it.
• International crisis resulted with the USA threatening Britain, and Russia threatening to “flatten” Israel.
• Britain and France forced to withdraw troops and respect an international UN ceasefire.
Consequences of the 1956 war
• Nasser’s popularity in the Arab world soared. He had challenged the colonial powers and had not been defeated.
• Israelis army captured the Sinai Peninsula (although they were forced to hand it back in 1957) and the planting of UN troops on the Israeli-Egyptian border, and at sharam-el-sheikh ended the Feyadeen raids and opened up the gulf of Aquaba to Israeli shipping.
• End of European power in the Middle East. Britain was humiliated and France achieved nothing.
• The Soviet Union enhanced its reputation as a supporter of the Arabs against the colonial powers and was pleased to see the western powers divided.
• USA now furious since it saw the Soviet Union becoming the major power in the region.
Role of the Superpowers in the 1950s
• Soviet Union turned away from Israel and began to actively support the Arabs.
• USA maintained a low profile in the region concerned not to alienate the oil-rich Arab nations.
The Six-Day War June 5-10, 1967
• UN presence reduced Feyadeen activity across the Egypt-israel border, but they increased across the Lebanese, Syrian, and Jordanian borders.
• 1965 – PLO formed and organized raids – tensions increased.
• Israel hit back with reprisals.
• Anti-Israel Arab broadcasts increased on radio. Also critical of Nasser for his inactivity and ‘hiding behind the skirts’ of the UN expeditionary force (UNEF).
• April 1967 – a major border incident between Syria and Israel – full scale response by Israel – Nasser stood by.
Causes of the War
• Began 13th May, 1967 with Soviet intelligence report claiming that Israelis forces were massing on the Syrian border – report proved wrong later but stirred Nasser into action.
• Nasser advanced in the Sinai and ordered the UNEF to leave its positions on the border and at sharam-el-sheik to close the straits to Israeli shipping.
• Israel saw this as a cause of war.
• May 23 full mobilization order in Israel – critical as the economy was paralyzed as Israel’s military strength was based on its reserves.
• Both superpowers told their client states that their client states that they would not support a pre-emptive
• Israel saw this as a cause for war may 23 full mobilisation order in Israel Critical as the Economy was paralysed as Israel military strength was based on its Reserves.
• Both superpowers told the client states that they could not support a pre-emptive strike
The War
• 5th of June-Israeli War Planes attacked the airfields of Syria, Jordan, Egypt destroying most resources on the ground 400 Arab Planes were lost compared to 19 Israeli Planes
• Egyptians Forces all retreated to the Canal and were attacked in the Sinai by Israel
• Result of the war 12000 Egyptians killed 338 Israeli Killed,
• King Hussein of Jordan reluctantly entered the War as he was fearful of the Palestinian Camps and he was soon defeated by Israel
• 8th of June-victory over Jordan and Egypt.
• Israel swung north to attack Syria and gain control of the Golan heights and looked certain to advance to Damascus
• Soviet told American Israel must accept a Ceasefire or they would intervene sum were already painted in Egyptian colours.
• Israel agreed to a Cease Fire
Consequences of the War
• Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula, East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan and the Golan Heights these became known as the administrated territory [Israeli] and the occupied [Palestinian]
• Israel now controlled the Wailing Walls in East Jerusalem
• However the main result of the war was stalemate rather outright
• Israel now closed the Straits of Aqaba to Jordanian shipping the war polarised relations between the superpowers soviets believed that the USA and Israel had colluded secretly and now rearmed the Arab countries while America rearmed the Israel,
• Peace was no longer likely between Arab and Israel because the Arabs had established and aggressive tone no peace with Israel no recognition of Israel no negations with Israel and insistence with rights of the Palestine.
• November 1967 the UN passed resolution 242 calling for the withdrawal of the Israel from Territory occupied in recent conflict.
• In 1968 Nasser launched on Israel Positions on the West Bank of the Suez Canal and Israel Responded with Air Raids
• Soviet then supplied Egypt with SAMs and Crews operate them this meant than an Israel Air raid would lead to a direct conflict between Israel and the Soviet Union.
Escalation of the war
• Concerned that the US arranged cease fire in July 1970
• September 1970 Nasser died and was replaced by Anwar Sadat
launcher169
Lord of Chaos
This is a very large summary of the WW1 topic - some areas may not be covered otherwise good luck!
Reason for the war
• Germany invade Belgium
• Assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie
• The France British Russia alliance vs.
• The Germany Austria-Hungary Italy alliance.
Why was it call the first technological war
• War fought along the railway lines
• Development of new weapon such as aeroplanes, tanks, machine gun trench
• Trucks and trains were use to transport troops and heavy gun to the front quickly
• Use of gas
• Total War
Germany:
The Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen plan aimed to reduce the threat of fighting at two fronts at the one time. It meant that the German army would have to enter and defeat Belgium at a high speed in order to invade Paris in a matter of 6 weeks. Once entering France, the Germans would go around Paris by taking the three French Ports on the English Channel, and finally entering Paris to complete the invasion. Then, the German army would race to the Russia/Germany border, and then defeat the Russians. The Schlieffen Plan was made on the assumption that the battle against Belgium would be an effortless and timeless battle. It was also made on the assumption that the Russians would take 6 weeks to mobilise their armies.
France:
Plan Seventeen
The French planned to send well trained soldiers to invade the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine – two provinces on the French/German border, thus entering Germany.
Great Britain
Although small, Great Britain planned to send their well trained army, known as the “British Expeditionary Force” to defend Belgium and France against the German Army. Great Britain planned to use their top-of-the-line Navy Fleet to defend the homeland.
The Plans Fail:
Although all plans began as expected, it took only 3 weeks for each to fail.
The Schlieffen Plan
On entering Belgium, to the surprise of the Germans, the Belgian Army put up a strong fight and slowed the Germans down by 10 days. The Germans met the BEF at the battle of the Mons, which also, exceptionally slowed down the German Army. The Schlieffen Plan also failed as the assumption of how long it would take Russia was incorrect. On their Eastern border, Russia suddenly attacked Germany, and von Moltke, the commander of the German army, was forced to send half of his troops to the Eastern front. This meant that the Germans were fighting a war on two fronts and defeated the point of the Schlieffen Plan. Furthermore, von Moltke reduced the concentration of troops on the outer groups and used those troops to defend the Alsace-Lorraine border. By also facilitating between two plans he contributed the greatest to the stalemate that occurred.
Plan Seventeen
Plan Seventeen failed once the French entered the province of Lorraine, where they found the German Army well defended with machine guns. The French Army was badly defeated. The Germans came close enough to Paris to see the Eiffel Tower, but the French Armies were marching towards the Germans to cut them off. They met at the river Marne, and the battle began on the fifth of September. The previous day, however, the Military Governor of Paris: Marshal Gallieni sent all reserve soldiers to the Marne. Day and night, after the first day of the battle, taxis from Paris were sending fresh recruits to the Marne. By the end of the battle, the Germans had retreated 60 kilometres to the River
Aisne, where they dug trenches and set up machine gun posts to defend them.
By this stage in the war, all sides had abandoned their original war plans, as each tried to prevent the other advancing, hoping to reach the English Channel.
The Battle at Ypres:
As the German and French Army “raced to the sea”, a number of horrific battles were fought, but the worst at a town called Ypres. There, the BEF prevented the German Army from advancing. However, this was at an appalling cost. In one division, the BEF lost 365 of its 400 officers, and 10,774 of its 12,000 soldiers.
New Technology to help break the stalemate
• Rifles: All troops on both sides were issued with rifles. It was a basic weapon for war and could be used at a range of 2000 meters
• Machine Guns: Stopped the enemy breaking into the trench lines. It could fire much faster than a rifle and was more accurate. The Germans had 8 per battalion while the BEF has 2.
• Trench Mortars: Trench mortars could kill enemy soldiers up to 3000 meters away without exposing the attacker. Trench mortars were very accurate and helped create fear in the enemy, leaving them with shell shock.
• The Big Guns: Broke barbed wire and opened trench lines to allow attackers to advance. While it was intended to help the attackers take the trench, the guns often confused and made things more difficult for attackers.
• Aeroplanes: Aeroplanes were originally used to spy on the enemy line, but were gradually used as an attacking weapon.
• Barbed Wire: This was used around trench lines to hamper movement and funnel attacks into machine gun nests.
• Gas: The use of gas as a weapon was first used by the Germans in April 1915 at the battle of Ypres. It left troops in the trench coughing and choking. However, its effectiveness was hampered by the wind which left the gas on the trenches and prevented the attackers from capturing the trench. After early use if chlorine and phosgene, more gases were developed like mustard.
• Flamethrower: Flamethrowers were developed and used by the Germans. They were used to clear away enemy troops, but had limited value.
• Grenades: Grenades entered the war in august 1915. it allowed soldiers to toss missiles at the enemy while in the protection of their trenches.
• Tanks: Tanks entered the war in 15th September 1916 at the battle of the Somme. They were used ti break the enemy line with fire, leaving a gap for advance. Tanks were highly effective in creating fear in the attacked enemy.
Campaigns to break the Stalemate
Attempt by the Germans to break the stalemate:
Verdun, February 1916
Verdun, a town situated on the border of France, was known to be the strongest French city. Falkenheyn, the commander of the German Army, aimed to break the French Army by forcing them to defend Verdun. The Germans managed to capture the first two trenches quickly and in a number of days Verdun was about to fall, as the French generals knew that Verdun was of no military use, and were willing to give it to the Germans. However, the French Prime Minister was against it believing it would reduce morale. When the Germans called off their attack in July 1916, they had suffered 330,000 casualties and 350,000 casualties were suffered by the French.
The Spring Offensive (the Great March) March, 1918
The German economy was in strife, and with opposition to the war rising in Germany, the war needed to end. With the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed in late 1917, a great many troops could be reallocated from defensive positions in Russia to offensive positions on the Western Front. With this great march, the Germans pushed the allies all the way to the outskirts of Paris, where the Second Battle of the Marne was fought and with the defeat of the Germans the German war machine had no capacity to begin offensive operations and with the allies finally reinforced by the Americans, they could launch serious offensives against the Germans.
Attempts by the Allies to break the stalemate
The Somme, July 1916
The Battle of the Somme was used by the BEF to not only break the stalemate, but to also relieve the pressure on the French at Verdun. The Germans were aware of the planned attack and took measures like digging 12 meters deeper into the ground, and prepared themselves with ammunition for the oncoming onslaught. The result was when the battle was over, the BEF lost approximately one million men, and the German lost approximately 500,000 men. The allied forces only advanced 15 kilometres from the front line, but the ground captured was totally destroyed from the battle.
Messines
The hill known as Messines, standing at 140 meters tall, was held by the Germans. From this hill, the Germans could see everything for miles around. In great secrecy, the BEF dug nineteen tunnels deep under the hill and packed it with 500,000 kilograms of TNT. On the 7th June, they were all detonated at once. The battle was a success for the allies.
The Battle of Passchendaele, 1917
The battle of Passchendaele took place several kilometres north of the town Ypres, which had already staged two battles. The battle of Passchendaele, as with the Battle of the Somme, intended to reduce the pressure off the French army, already in another battle. The main attack went in over the low-lying land veined by water courses. Constant shelling had churned the clay soil and smashed the drainage systems. The heavy rains which coincided with the opening assault produced thick, clinging mud, which caked uniforms and clogged rifles. When the battle ended, the BEF had lost 245,000 casualties for a gain of less than 10 kilometres.
Trench Warfare:
Stalemate; both sides could no longer advance into enemy territory, as trenches were dug to defend each side. Trenches were about 2 metres deep and wide, and were a dug in a zigzag to prevent spreading damage of an exploding shell. The German Trenches were much more luxurious and superior to the Allied Trenches as the German Army was not planning on leaving their trenches, unless advancing into enemy Territory.
Life in the Trenches
Siegfried Sassoon once wrote that anyone who had experienced life in the trenches would be “everlastingly different from those who had not shared the experience.” Life was difficult, with a series of diseases, plagues and illnesses which continually entered the lives of the men in the trenches.
Diseases, plagues, illnesses and other distresses
• Lice: These small insects made their homes in clothing and their eggs were hatched by body heat. Lice bites left red marks on the skin and caused trench fever. It was impossible to live lice-free as when on the front line, soldiers may have gone for weeks before changing their clothes.
• Rats: A rodent plague hit the trenches as there was an abundance of their favourite food: dead bodies.
• Trench foot: A disease caused by being constantly immersed in water with little circulation, and being unable to change into dry footwear. Trench foot resulted in the feet swelling up to 3 or 4 times its normal size, numbing, and gradually rotting.
• Illness: Due to the unhygienic conditions and the problems with flies and cockroaches swarming all over the food, soldiers generally suffered from gastric complaints
• Fear: Soldiers were afraid of death, in case they were ordered to go “over the top” and run across no man’s land to take the enemy’s trench. Being shot by a sniper in your own trench. Having a shell, mortar or grenade land near you and explode.
• Noise: Constant shelling meant that soldiers in the trenches were constantly exposed to the sounds of exploding shells and the screams of other men. Also referred to as ‘shell shock’.
• Food: Although food was plentiful, cooking was difficult in the front trenches as the soldier’s could not risk letting smoke rise from their trench. This meant that their food, which never varied, would be eaten cold.
• Lack of Sleep: The fear, stress and excessive noise made it difficult for soldiers to sleep. This lack of sleep leads to high rates of depression, fatigue and emotional fluctuation.
Total War:
For the first time in history, war, which had been traditionally fought by men in battlefields, had expanded to being a battle fought not only on the battlefields, but also in communities and cities away from home. This meant that rather than civilians acting as spectators waiting for news on the battle, they took on an active role to support their friends, family and loved ones from their home towns.
The ‘Home Front’ and ‘War Front’
Thus came the terms “The War Front” – the war being fought on the battlefield, and “The Home Front” – the war being fought from the civilians at home. Winston Churchill described WW1 as “no ordinary war, but a struggle between nations for life and death that would demand a massive commitment of both human and material resources.” This resulted in the lifestyles of the citizens changing and adapting to suit, and support, the war effort.
The Home Front in Germany:
Total War in Germany had a much deeper and profound impact on the civilians than it did in Britain. Due to the huge number of men fighting on the war front, Germany faced severe food shortages and there was a greater emphasis of control on domestic labour, industry and agriculture. Food and fuel rations were imposed to deal with the severe shortages, and eventually resulted in the breakdown of the economy, strikes, and an attempt of revolution.
The Home Front in Britain:
In Britain, the Government released DORA – The Defence of the Realm Act, which allowed the Government to do almost anything it wanted. With DORA in place, The Government could take peoples land away from them if it felt that it was needed for the war efforts. They could arrest those which they classified ‘trouble makers’, close Pubs in the afternoon, censor newspapers and even change time by imposing day light savings. The British also had rationing, however it was much more monitored as they had women working in the factories in the place of men. However, both sides were very hungry.
Recruitment
As the war continued, both sides realised they were in dire need of more men to fight, as casualties kept occurring. However, both sides took different methods of increasing their men:
Germany
A century before the outbreak of WW1, Germany began a peace-time conscription, which included men between the ages of 17 and 45, therefore at the start of the war; the Germans had no problems with organising an army.
Britain
The British only had the BEF, a small group of well trained volunteers, who had all left for France in order to aid the French Armies. All Britain had remaining to defend herself were the Territorials, Britain’s reservists, who were part-time volunteers.
Until January 1916, Britains used persuasive measures to convince men to join the army, such as advertising and propaganda. These tools made the men feel as though they were needed on the field, and that without their support, Germany would invade Britain, and attack their weaker (mainly children and women) loved ones. However, in January 1916, the British realised that persuasive recruitment was not enough, and so conscription was imposed on all single men. However, in May 1916, the British once again realised that these measures were not avid in bringing the right number of men to fight. In May 1816, a new Universal Conscription Bill meant that not only single men, but also married men must join the army.
Censorship
Britain
• DORA-Defence of the Realm Act gave British government unprecedented powers civil rights were suspended for the duration of the conflict and the government gained an almost unlimited ability to regulate daily life.
• Newspapers censored
• Mail both to and from the front censored
• Mail overseas to anywhere was censored
Germany
• Structure of Germany society censorship was not need as much as in Britain
• Main problem was word of mouth and by the end of the war people talk about the weakness of their leaders
Propaganda
Aims of Propaganda:
• Recruit forces
• Vilify the enemy (i.e. make the enemy look evil)
• Raise morale at the home front
• Encourage conscription
• Justify the war
Examples of Propaganda:
• British royal family changing name to Windsor from Battenberg
• The “Hymn of Hate” in Germany
Audience:
• Young women
• Women
• Voters
• Consumers
• Overseas spectators – i.e. neutral countries such as USA
Methods:
• Posters
• Newspapers
• Comics
• Songs
• Stories of Atrocities
• Films
• Censorship
British Propaganda:
Where propaganda was concerned, the British had a clear advantage over the Germans, as they had many creative techniques by which to spread the propaganda.
One of these techniques included the War Propaganda Bureau. This controlled propaganda meant that different newspapers, publishers and artists had the same “facts” to tell, thus it seemed more believable. The British represented the Kaiser and Germany as evil, and a patriotic writer, Rudyard Kipling, wrote that the events of 1914 had split the world into two divisions: “human beings and Germans”. The British used their portrayal of Germany and the Kaiser to justify the war. Another popular method was to create stories about atrocities committed by German soldiers. The stories were so fabricated that the British told stories of Germans marching through Belgium with baby pieces hanging off their bayonets, and of the Germans mutilating and raping Nuns and Nurses before killing them. A lot of the British propaganda spread to the USA, and after the sinking of the Lucitania, continued to send stories to the USA in order to gain support.
German Propaganda:
The German methods of propaganda were much less organised and effective than the British one. The Germans spent approximately a US$100 million on a US aimed propaganda campaign, but the results were close to nil, with a lack of trust in the propaganda not only in the US, but also within Germany. German propaganda tried to convince the German civilians that the war had actually started with a French invasion of Germany, that the BEF plucked out the eyes of POWs, and that the Indian troops fighting for the BEF also drank the blood of German POWs.
Changing Attitudes to the War:
Britain
Until the battle of the Somme, many soldiers were excited at the prospect of war. They saw it as an opportunity for a picnic and a chance to grow into adulthood. It was an opportunity for adventure, and to defend their country, the innocent and weak, their loved ones, for a noble cause. On the home front, civilians were very supportive of the war. Letters coming home from men on the war front were censored, so those at the home front were unaware of the horrors and dreads the soldiers were facing. After the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, where there were 1, 000, 000 casualties, support for the war reduced on the home front, as the casualty listings in the newspapers increased, with so little gain. In July 1917, Siegfried Sassoon’s “A Soldiers Declaration” was read out in parliament and published in the daily newspapers.
‘I believe that the war is being prolonged by those who have the power to end it. I believe that this war upon which I entered as a war of defence and liberation has now become a war of conquest and aggression. I have seen and endured the sufferings of the troops, and I can no longer be a party to prolonging these sufferings for ends which I believe to be evil and unjust.’
Germany:
On the German side, support for the war lasted much longer as from the war front, it looked like the Germans were close to winning the war. However, after the winter of 1916, which later became known as “The Turnip Winter”, where there was nothing to eat but turnips, the German’s on the home front lost faith in the war. The Peace Movement began in 1915, led by Bethmann-Hollweg, and continued to rise until the Armistice in November, 1918.
The German Peace Note
Written in November, 1916, two and a half years after the war began, the Germans proposed entering peace negotiations. The proposal was ignored by the Allies.
The Papal Peace Note:
This was a note addressing all warring countries on 1st August 1917, proposing all countries return to the original borders. The Pope also proposed arrangements for disarmament of all nations and international arbitration. His proposal was rejected by President Wilson of the USA and the Allied forces. The Papal Peace Note included the following points:
1. Disarmament
2. Arbitration
3. Freedom of the Seas
4. Each nations self reconstruction
5. Returning to original borders, prior 1914
6. Armenia, the Balkan States, and Poland should be allowed to self determination
The Fourteen Points:
President Woodrow Wilson released “The Fourteen Points” on January 8,
1918. They were based on the points brought forth in the Papal Peace Note.
The Fourteen Points were as follows:
1. There should be no secret treaties between nations.
2. There should be freedom of the seas in peace time and war time
3. There should be free trade between countries
4. There should be an international reduction of armaments
5. Colonies should have a say in their own future
6. German troops should leave Russia
7. There should be independence for Belgium
8. France should regain Alsace-Lorraine
9. The frontier between Austria and Italy should be adjusted
10. The subject peoples of Austria-Hungary should gain self determination
11. Serbia should have access to the sea
12. The subject peoples of the Turkish Empire should gain self-determination and the Dardanelles to be internationalised
13. Poland should become an independent state with access to the sea
14. A League of Nations should be established.
Neither the Allied Forces, nor the Central Forces (i.e. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey) accepted the proposal.
Women at War
At the start of the war, women mainly worked in the factories in the place of the men gone to war, making shells and explosives. However, as more and more men were needed on the War Front, women gradually took on more roles, and were eventually working on buses and trams, delivering coal and ploughing fields, even working in the Police Force. As women gained more freedom with the men at work and higher paying jobs (although Britain was in war at the time, the jobs women worked during war paid higher than the domestic duties which they worked when in Peace Time), women over the age of thirty were given the right to vote.
Post-War Soldier and Civilian expectations of the government as a result of War experience Britain (1918-1919)
• Soldiers and civilians alike expected great things from peace, and were naturally disappointed. Numerous army mutinies due to errors in the demobilisation process (eg a short lived policy of letting the most skilled men out first – almost causing the loss of south west England and the channel ports)
• General expectation that the government would care for war wounded and widows. After all previous wars they had to fend for themselves
• The civilian population expected that the government lift rationing and censorship after the war.
Effects of the war
• lose of male population hat would take generation to recover
• financial ruin
• destruction of production
• boys were turn into men with out a childhood
• the horror of war
• sick and wounded soldiers to look after
• shell shock
• casualties
• the big loss at Verdun for Germany and Somme Britain
• stalemate
• food shorts Germany in a big way because of the allies navel block
• loss of freedom because of DORA and everything going toward the war effort
Post War Peace Talks and Treaties:
The Armistice:
The Armistice, signed by Germany on the 11th of November, 1918, was the final peace proposal signed on by all sides. The Armistice meant that Germany would have to do the following:
1. Immediately evacuate Belgium, Luxembourg, France and Alsace-Lorraine
2. Surrender 2, 500 heavy guns, 2, 500 field guns, 25, 000 machine guns, and 1, 700 aeroplanes
3. Evacuate the left bank of the Rhine; this area would be occupied by the Allies
4. Hand over 5, 000 locomotives, 150, 000 railway wagons and 5, 000 trucks.
The Armistice also concluded that a meeting to be held in January of 1919 in Paris (i.e. The Paris Peace Conference) would further discuss the post-war world.
The Paris Peace Conference, January 1919, Germany:
The Paris Peace Conference, which met at the Palace of Versailles in January 1919, was attended by 100 delegates from a range of countries. However, the talks were dominated by “The Big Three” (i.e Georges Clemenceau representing France, Woodrow Wilson representing USA and Lloyd George representing Britain). At the Paris Peace Conference, the negotiators were presented with a map of Europe. They had to redraw the map in order to prevent future battles and to create and sustain peace. The negotiators were also faced with Italy, France and Britain’s demands for
war reparations. After six months of negotiations, the Versailles Treaty was signed.
The main terms of the Versailles Treaty were:
1. The surrender of all German colonies as League of Nations mandates
2. The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
3. Cession of Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, Memel to Lithuania, the Hultschin district to Czechoslovakia,
4. Poznania, parts of East Prussia and Upper Silesia to Poland
5. Danzig to become a free city
6. Plebiscites to be held in northern Schleswig to settle the Danish- German frontier
7. Occupation and special status for the Saar under French control
8. Demilitarization and a fifteen-year occupation of the Rhineland
9. German reparations of £6,600 million;
10. A ban on the union of Germany and Austria
11. An acceptance of Germany's guilt in causing the war
12. Provision for the trial of the former Kaiser and other war leaders
13. Limitation of Germany's army to 100,000 men with no conscription, no tanks, no heavy artillery, no poison-gas supplies, no aircraft and no airships
14. The limitation of the German Navy to vessels under 100,000 tons, with no submarines
Reparations
The reparations clauses of the treaty were both harsh and unrealistic. Germany not only had to pay for the damage cause in the war zones, but also for the shipping losses, as well as service pensions and allowances for the allied soldiers and their families. Germany was expected to pay this, even though the total of the pensions and allowances was a total of a US$32 billion, she had lost 12.5% of her territory, lost 7 million inhabitants and all her foreign investments. Germany signed the Versailles Treaty under protest. The USA Congress refused to ratify the treaty. Many people in France and Britain were angry that there was no trial of the Kaiser or the other war leaders.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918, Russia
One third of Russia’s agricultural land was given to Germany, and Russia had to pay Germany reparations from the war.
Treaty of St. Germaine, September 1919, Austria
Austria-Hungary as a nation was separated, and Hungary became a separate State. Austria was forced to give the provinces of southern Tyrol, Austria and Trieste to Italy, while the newly created states of Czechoslovakia. German speaking Austrians were forbidden to reunite with their German kin. Austria’s army was severely limited, and she was forced to pay reparations.
Treaty of Trianon, 1920, Hungary
Hungary lost her Slovak provinces to Czechoslovakia, Transylvania and Buhovina to Romania, and Croatia and Bemat to Yugoslavia. Her armed force was limited and she lost over ½ her previous population. Hungary also had to pay reparations.
Treaty of Neuillv, 1919, Bulgaria
Although Bulgaria was not treated as harshly as the other nations, she still lost some territory to the newly created Yugoslavia, and Greece. Her armed forces were also limited and she also had to pay reparations.
Treaty of Sevres, 1920, Turkey:
It resulted in the following:
1. Great Britain was to control the states of Palestine and Mesopotamia.
2. France would control Syria and parts of Cilicia.
3. Italy would have spheres of influence in Anatolia.
4. Greece was to receive Eastern Thrace, Adrianople, Gallipoli, Imbros, Tenedos and the Dodecanese Islands.
5. Hejaz, Saudi Arabia and Yemen were made independent
6. The Dardanelles were to be opened to all ships and placed under the administration of an international commission
Treaty of Lausanne, 1923, Turkey:
After a newly elected and very popular leader, Mustapha Kemal, came to power in Turkey, he renounced the treaty of Sevres and defeated the Greeks who had occupied Smyrna. The allies then negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne which meant that Turkey was allowed to regain Anatolia, Adrianople, Eastern Thrace, and Gallipoli. She was not required to pay any reparations, nor was any restrictions placed on her army. However, the straits were left under an international commission until 1936.
Effect of Germany after the war
• striped of its land (colonies)
• war guilt clause
• reparation
• Germany had to take responsibility for the war
• Germany had to pay 132 000 000 000 000 USA pay for most it due to it was scared of Germany becoming communist state
Reason for the war
• Germany invade Belgium
• Assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie
• The France British Russia alliance vs.
• The Germany Austria-Hungary Italy alliance.
Why was it call the first technological war
• War fought along the railway lines
• Development of new weapon such as aeroplanes, tanks, machine gun trench
• Trucks and trains were use to transport troops and heavy gun to the front quickly
• Use of gas
• Total War
Germany:
The Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen plan aimed to reduce the threat of fighting at two fronts at the one time. It meant that the German army would have to enter and defeat Belgium at a high speed in order to invade Paris in a matter of 6 weeks. Once entering France, the Germans would go around Paris by taking the three French Ports on the English Channel, and finally entering Paris to complete the invasion. Then, the German army would race to the Russia/Germany border, and then defeat the Russians. The Schlieffen Plan was made on the assumption that the battle against Belgium would be an effortless and timeless battle. It was also made on the assumption that the Russians would take 6 weeks to mobilise their armies.
France:
Plan Seventeen
The French planned to send well trained soldiers to invade the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine – two provinces on the French/German border, thus entering Germany.
Great Britain
Although small, Great Britain planned to send their well trained army, known as the “British Expeditionary Force” to defend Belgium and France against the German Army. Great Britain planned to use their top-of-the-line Navy Fleet to defend the homeland.
The Plans Fail:
Although all plans began as expected, it took only 3 weeks for each to fail.
The Schlieffen Plan
On entering Belgium, to the surprise of the Germans, the Belgian Army put up a strong fight and slowed the Germans down by 10 days. The Germans met the BEF at the battle of the Mons, which also, exceptionally slowed down the German Army. The Schlieffen Plan also failed as the assumption of how long it would take Russia was incorrect. On their Eastern border, Russia suddenly attacked Germany, and von Moltke, the commander of the German army, was forced to send half of his troops to the Eastern front. This meant that the Germans were fighting a war on two fronts and defeated the point of the Schlieffen Plan. Furthermore, von Moltke reduced the concentration of troops on the outer groups and used those troops to defend the Alsace-Lorraine border. By also facilitating between two plans he contributed the greatest to the stalemate that occurred.
Plan Seventeen
Plan Seventeen failed once the French entered the province of Lorraine, where they found the German Army well defended with machine guns. The French Army was badly defeated. The Germans came close enough to Paris to see the Eiffel Tower, but the French Armies were marching towards the Germans to cut them off. They met at the river Marne, and the battle began on the fifth of September. The previous day, however, the Military Governor of Paris: Marshal Gallieni sent all reserve soldiers to the Marne. Day and night, after the first day of the battle, taxis from Paris were sending fresh recruits to the Marne. By the end of the battle, the Germans had retreated 60 kilometres to the River
Aisne, where they dug trenches and set up machine gun posts to defend them.
By this stage in the war, all sides had abandoned their original war plans, as each tried to prevent the other advancing, hoping to reach the English Channel.
The Battle at Ypres:
As the German and French Army “raced to the sea”, a number of horrific battles were fought, but the worst at a town called Ypres. There, the BEF prevented the German Army from advancing. However, this was at an appalling cost. In one division, the BEF lost 365 of its 400 officers, and 10,774 of its 12,000 soldiers.
New Technology to help break the stalemate
• Rifles: All troops on both sides were issued with rifles. It was a basic weapon for war and could be used at a range of 2000 meters
• Machine Guns: Stopped the enemy breaking into the trench lines. It could fire much faster than a rifle and was more accurate. The Germans had 8 per battalion while the BEF has 2.
• Trench Mortars: Trench mortars could kill enemy soldiers up to 3000 meters away without exposing the attacker. Trench mortars were very accurate and helped create fear in the enemy, leaving them with shell shock.
• The Big Guns: Broke barbed wire and opened trench lines to allow attackers to advance. While it was intended to help the attackers take the trench, the guns often confused and made things more difficult for attackers.
• Aeroplanes: Aeroplanes were originally used to spy on the enemy line, but were gradually used as an attacking weapon.
• Barbed Wire: This was used around trench lines to hamper movement and funnel attacks into machine gun nests.
• Gas: The use of gas as a weapon was first used by the Germans in April 1915 at the battle of Ypres. It left troops in the trench coughing and choking. However, its effectiveness was hampered by the wind which left the gas on the trenches and prevented the attackers from capturing the trench. After early use if chlorine and phosgene, more gases were developed like mustard.
• Flamethrower: Flamethrowers were developed and used by the Germans. They were used to clear away enemy troops, but had limited value.
• Grenades: Grenades entered the war in august 1915. it allowed soldiers to toss missiles at the enemy while in the protection of their trenches.
• Tanks: Tanks entered the war in 15th September 1916 at the battle of the Somme. They were used ti break the enemy line with fire, leaving a gap for advance. Tanks were highly effective in creating fear in the attacked enemy.
Campaigns to break the Stalemate
Attempt by the Germans to break the stalemate:
Verdun, February 1916
Verdun, a town situated on the border of France, was known to be the strongest French city. Falkenheyn, the commander of the German Army, aimed to break the French Army by forcing them to defend Verdun. The Germans managed to capture the first two trenches quickly and in a number of days Verdun was about to fall, as the French generals knew that Verdun was of no military use, and were willing to give it to the Germans. However, the French Prime Minister was against it believing it would reduce morale. When the Germans called off their attack in July 1916, they had suffered 330,000 casualties and 350,000 casualties were suffered by the French.
The Spring Offensive (the Great March) March, 1918
The German economy was in strife, and with opposition to the war rising in Germany, the war needed to end. With the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed in late 1917, a great many troops could be reallocated from defensive positions in Russia to offensive positions on the Western Front. With this great march, the Germans pushed the allies all the way to the outskirts of Paris, where the Second Battle of the Marne was fought and with the defeat of the Germans the German war machine had no capacity to begin offensive operations and with the allies finally reinforced by the Americans, they could launch serious offensives against the Germans.
Attempts by the Allies to break the stalemate
The Somme, July 1916
The Battle of the Somme was used by the BEF to not only break the stalemate, but to also relieve the pressure on the French at Verdun. The Germans were aware of the planned attack and took measures like digging 12 meters deeper into the ground, and prepared themselves with ammunition for the oncoming onslaught. The result was when the battle was over, the BEF lost approximately one million men, and the German lost approximately 500,000 men. The allied forces only advanced 15 kilometres from the front line, but the ground captured was totally destroyed from the battle.
Messines
The hill known as Messines, standing at 140 meters tall, was held by the Germans. From this hill, the Germans could see everything for miles around. In great secrecy, the BEF dug nineteen tunnels deep under the hill and packed it with 500,000 kilograms of TNT. On the 7th June, they were all detonated at once. The battle was a success for the allies.
The Battle of Passchendaele, 1917
The battle of Passchendaele took place several kilometres north of the town Ypres, which had already staged two battles. The battle of Passchendaele, as with the Battle of the Somme, intended to reduce the pressure off the French army, already in another battle. The main attack went in over the low-lying land veined by water courses. Constant shelling had churned the clay soil and smashed the drainage systems. The heavy rains which coincided with the opening assault produced thick, clinging mud, which caked uniforms and clogged rifles. When the battle ended, the BEF had lost 245,000 casualties for a gain of less than 10 kilometres.
Trench Warfare:
Stalemate; both sides could no longer advance into enemy territory, as trenches were dug to defend each side. Trenches were about 2 metres deep and wide, and were a dug in a zigzag to prevent spreading damage of an exploding shell. The German Trenches were much more luxurious and superior to the Allied Trenches as the German Army was not planning on leaving their trenches, unless advancing into enemy Territory.
Life in the Trenches
Siegfried Sassoon once wrote that anyone who had experienced life in the trenches would be “everlastingly different from those who had not shared the experience.” Life was difficult, with a series of diseases, plagues and illnesses which continually entered the lives of the men in the trenches.
Diseases, plagues, illnesses and other distresses
• Lice: These small insects made their homes in clothing and their eggs were hatched by body heat. Lice bites left red marks on the skin and caused trench fever. It was impossible to live lice-free as when on the front line, soldiers may have gone for weeks before changing their clothes.
• Rats: A rodent plague hit the trenches as there was an abundance of their favourite food: dead bodies.
• Trench foot: A disease caused by being constantly immersed in water with little circulation, and being unable to change into dry footwear. Trench foot resulted in the feet swelling up to 3 or 4 times its normal size, numbing, and gradually rotting.
• Illness: Due to the unhygienic conditions and the problems with flies and cockroaches swarming all over the food, soldiers generally suffered from gastric complaints
• Fear: Soldiers were afraid of death, in case they were ordered to go “over the top” and run across no man’s land to take the enemy’s trench. Being shot by a sniper in your own trench. Having a shell, mortar or grenade land near you and explode.
• Noise: Constant shelling meant that soldiers in the trenches were constantly exposed to the sounds of exploding shells and the screams of other men. Also referred to as ‘shell shock’.
• Food: Although food was plentiful, cooking was difficult in the front trenches as the soldier’s could not risk letting smoke rise from their trench. This meant that their food, which never varied, would be eaten cold.
• Lack of Sleep: The fear, stress and excessive noise made it difficult for soldiers to sleep. This lack of sleep leads to high rates of depression, fatigue and emotional fluctuation.
Total War:
For the first time in history, war, which had been traditionally fought by men in battlefields, had expanded to being a battle fought not only on the battlefields, but also in communities and cities away from home. This meant that rather than civilians acting as spectators waiting for news on the battle, they took on an active role to support their friends, family and loved ones from their home towns.
The ‘Home Front’ and ‘War Front’
Thus came the terms “The War Front” – the war being fought on the battlefield, and “The Home Front” – the war being fought from the civilians at home. Winston Churchill described WW1 as “no ordinary war, but a struggle between nations for life and death that would demand a massive commitment of both human and material resources.” This resulted in the lifestyles of the citizens changing and adapting to suit, and support, the war effort.
The Home Front in Germany:
Total War in Germany had a much deeper and profound impact on the civilians than it did in Britain. Due to the huge number of men fighting on the war front, Germany faced severe food shortages and there was a greater emphasis of control on domestic labour, industry and agriculture. Food and fuel rations were imposed to deal with the severe shortages, and eventually resulted in the breakdown of the economy, strikes, and an attempt of revolution.
The Home Front in Britain:
In Britain, the Government released DORA – The Defence of the Realm Act, which allowed the Government to do almost anything it wanted. With DORA in place, The Government could take peoples land away from them if it felt that it was needed for the war efforts. They could arrest those which they classified ‘trouble makers’, close Pubs in the afternoon, censor newspapers and even change time by imposing day light savings. The British also had rationing, however it was much more monitored as they had women working in the factories in the place of men. However, both sides were very hungry.
Recruitment
As the war continued, both sides realised they were in dire need of more men to fight, as casualties kept occurring. However, both sides took different methods of increasing their men:
Germany
A century before the outbreak of WW1, Germany began a peace-time conscription, which included men between the ages of 17 and 45, therefore at the start of the war; the Germans had no problems with organising an army.
Britain
The British only had the BEF, a small group of well trained volunteers, who had all left for France in order to aid the French Armies. All Britain had remaining to defend herself were the Territorials, Britain’s reservists, who were part-time volunteers.
Until January 1916, Britains used persuasive measures to convince men to join the army, such as advertising and propaganda. These tools made the men feel as though they were needed on the field, and that without their support, Germany would invade Britain, and attack their weaker (mainly children and women) loved ones. However, in January 1916, the British realised that persuasive recruitment was not enough, and so conscription was imposed on all single men. However, in May 1916, the British once again realised that these measures were not avid in bringing the right number of men to fight. In May 1816, a new Universal Conscription Bill meant that not only single men, but also married men must join the army.
Censorship
Britain
• DORA-Defence of the Realm Act gave British government unprecedented powers civil rights were suspended for the duration of the conflict and the government gained an almost unlimited ability to regulate daily life.
• Newspapers censored
• Mail both to and from the front censored
• Mail overseas to anywhere was censored
Germany
• Structure of Germany society censorship was not need as much as in Britain
• Main problem was word of mouth and by the end of the war people talk about the weakness of their leaders
Propaganda
Aims of Propaganda:
• Recruit forces
• Vilify the enemy (i.e. make the enemy look evil)
• Raise morale at the home front
• Encourage conscription
• Justify the war
Examples of Propaganda:
• British royal family changing name to Windsor from Battenberg
• The “Hymn of Hate” in Germany
Audience:
• Young women
• Women
• Voters
• Consumers
• Overseas spectators – i.e. neutral countries such as USA
Methods:
• Posters
• Newspapers
• Comics
• Songs
• Stories of Atrocities
• Films
• Censorship
British Propaganda:
Where propaganda was concerned, the British had a clear advantage over the Germans, as they had many creative techniques by which to spread the propaganda.
One of these techniques included the War Propaganda Bureau. This controlled propaganda meant that different newspapers, publishers and artists had the same “facts” to tell, thus it seemed more believable. The British represented the Kaiser and Germany as evil, and a patriotic writer, Rudyard Kipling, wrote that the events of 1914 had split the world into two divisions: “human beings and Germans”. The British used their portrayal of Germany and the Kaiser to justify the war. Another popular method was to create stories about atrocities committed by German soldiers. The stories were so fabricated that the British told stories of Germans marching through Belgium with baby pieces hanging off their bayonets, and of the Germans mutilating and raping Nuns and Nurses before killing them. A lot of the British propaganda spread to the USA, and after the sinking of the Lucitania, continued to send stories to the USA in order to gain support.
German Propaganda:
The German methods of propaganda were much less organised and effective than the British one. The Germans spent approximately a US$100 million on a US aimed propaganda campaign, but the results were close to nil, with a lack of trust in the propaganda not only in the US, but also within Germany. German propaganda tried to convince the German civilians that the war had actually started with a French invasion of Germany, that the BEF plucked out the eyes of POWs, and that the Indian troops fighting for the BEF also drank the blood of German POWs.
Changing Attitudes to the War:
Britain
Until the battle of the Somme, many soldiers were excited at the prospect of war. They saw it as an opportunity for a picnic and a chance to grow into adulthood. It was an opportunity for adventure, and to defend their country, the innocent and weak, their loved ones, for a noble cause. On the home front, civilians were very supportive of the war. Letters coming home from men on the war front were censored, so those at the home front were unaware of the horrors and dreads the soldiers were facing. After the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, where there were 1, 000, 000 casualties, support for the war reduced on the home front, as the casualty listings in the newspapers increased, with so little gain. In July 1917, Siegfried Sassoon’s “A Soldiers Declaration” was read out in parliament and published in the daily newspapers.
‘I believe that the war is being prolonged by those who have the power to end it. I believe that this war upon which I entered as a war of defence and liberation has now become a war of conquest and aggression. I have seen and endured the sufferings of the troops, and I can no longer be a party to prolonging these sufferings for ends which I believe to be evil and unjust.’
Germany:
On the German side, support for the war lasted much longer as from the war front, it looked like the Germans were close to winning the war. However, after the winter of 1916, which later became known as “The Turnip Winter”, where there was nothing to eat but turnips, the German’s on the home front lost faith in the war. The Peace Movement began in 1915, led by Bethmann-Hollweg, and continued to rise until the Armistice in November, 1918.
The German Peace Note
Written in November, 1916, two and a half years after the war began, the Germans proposed entering peace negotiations. The proposal was ignored by the Allies.
The Papal Peace Note:
This was a note addressing all warring countries on 1st August 1917, proposing all countries return to the original borders. The Pope also proposed arrangements for disarmament of all nations and international arbitration. His proposal was rejected by President Wilson of the USA and the Allied forces. The Papal Peace Note included the following points:
1. Disarmament
2. Arbitration
3. Freedom of the Seas
4. Each nations self reconstruction
5. Returning to original borders, prior 1914
6. Armenia, the Balkan States, and Poland should be allowed to self determination
The Fourteen Points:
President Woodrow Wilson released “The Fourteen Points” on January 8,
1918. They were based on the points brought forth in the Papal Peace Note.
The Fourteen Points were as follows:
1. There should be no secret treaties between nations.
2. There should be freedom of the seas in peace time and war time
3. There should be free trade between countries
4. There should be an international reduction of armaments
5. Colonies should have a say in their own future
6. German troops should leave Russia
7. There should be independence for Belgium
8. France should regain Alsace-Lorraine
9. The frontier between Austria and Italy should be adjusted
10. The subject peoples of Austria-Hungary should gain self determination
11. Serbia should have access to the sea
12. The subject peoples of the Turkish Empire should gain self-determination and the Dardanelles to be internationalised
13. Poland should become an independent state with access to the sea
14. A League of Nations should be established.
Neither the Allied Forces, nor the Central Forces (i.e. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey) accepted the proposal.
Women at War
At the start of the war, women mainly worked in the factories in the place of the men gone to war, making shells and explosives. However, as more and more men were needed on the War Front, women gradually took on more roles, and were eventually working on buses and trams, delivering coal and ploughing fields, even working in the Police Force. As women gained more freedom with the men at work and higher paying jobs (although Britain was in war at the time, the jobs women worked during war paid higher than the domestic duties which they worked when in Peace Time), women over the age of thirty were given the right to vote.
Post-War Soldier and Civilian expectations of the government as a result of War experience Britain (1918-1919)
• Soldiers and civilians alike expected great things from peace, and were naturally disappointed. Numerous army mutinies due to errors in the demobilisation process (eg a short lived policy of letting the most skilled men out first – almost causing the loss of south west England and the channel ports)
• General expectation that the government would care for war wounded and widows. After all previous wars they had to fend for themselves
• The civilian population expected that the government lift rationing and censorship after the war.
Effects of the war
• lose of male population hat would take generation to recover
• financial ruin
• destruction of production
• boys were turn into men with out a childhood
• the horror of war
• sick and wounded soldiers to look after
• shell shock
• casualties
• the big loss at Verdun for Germany and Somme Britain
• stalemate
• food shorts Germany in a big way because of the allies navel block
• loss of freedom because of DORA and everything going toward the war effort
Post War Peace Talks and Treaties:
The Armistice:
The Armistice, signed by Germany on the 11th of November, 1918, was the final peace proposal signed on by all sides. The Armistice meant that Germany would have to do the following:
1. Immediately evacuate Belgium, Luxembourg, France and Alsace-Lorraine
2. Surrender 2, 500 heavy guns, 2, 500 field guns, 25, 000 machine guns, and 1, 700 aeroplanes
3. Evacuate the left bank of the Rhine; this area would be occupied by the Allies
4. Hand over 5, 000 locomotives, 150, 000 railway wagons and 5, 000 trucks.
The Armistice also concluded that a meeting to be held in January of 1919 in Paris (i.e. The Paris Peace Conference) would further discuss the post-war world.
The Paris Peace Conference, January 1919, Germany:
The Paris Peace Conference, which met at the Palace of Versailles in January 1919, was attended by 100 delegates from a range of countries. However, the talks were dominated by “The Big Three” (i.e Georges Clemenceau representing France, Woodrow Wilson representing USA and Lloyd George representing Britain). At the Paris Peace Conference, the negotiators were presented with a map of Europe. They had to redraw the map in order to prevent future battles and to create and sustain peace. The negotiators were also faced with Italy, France and Britain’s demands for
war reparations. After six months of negotiations, the Versailles Treaty was signed.
The main terms of the Versailles Treaty were:
1. The surrender of all German colonies as League of Nations mandates
2. The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
3. Cession of Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, Memel to Lithuania, the Hultschin district to Czechoslovakia,
4. Poznania, parts of East Prussia and Upper Silesia to Poland
5. Danzig to become a free city
6. Plebiscites to be held in northern Schleswig to settle the Danish- German frontier
7. Occupation and special status for the Saar under French control
8. Demilitarization and a fifteen-year occupation of the Rhineland
9. German reparations of £6,600 million;
10. A ban on the union of Germany and Austria
11. An acceptance of Germany's guilt in causing the war
12. Provision for the trial of the former Kaiser and other war leaders
13. Limitation of Germany's army to 100,000 men with no conscription, no tanks, no heavy artillery, no poison-gas supplies, no aircraft and no airships
14. The limitation of the German Navy to vessels under 100,000 tons, with no submarines
Reparations
The reparations clauses of the treaty were both harsh and unrealistic. Germany not only had to pay for the damage cause in the war zones, but also for the shipping losses, as well as service pensions and allowances for the allied soldiers and their families. Germany was expected to pay this, even though the total of the pensions and allowances was a total of a US$32 billion, she had lost 12.5% of her territory, lost 7 million inhabitants and all her foreign investments. Germany signed the Versailles Treaty under protest. The USA Congress refused to ratify the treaty. Many people in France and Britain were angry that there was no trial of the Kaiser or the other war leaders.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918, Russia
One third of Russia’s agricultural land was given to Germany, and Russia had to pay Germany reparations from the war.
Treaty of St. Germaine, September 1919, Austria
Austria-Hungary as a nation was separated, and Hungary became a separate State. Austria was forced to give the provinces of southern Tyrol, Austria and Trieste to Italy, while the newly created states of Czechoslovakia. German speaking Austrians were forbidden to reunite with their German kin. Austria’s army was severely limited, and she was forced to pay reparations.
Treaty of Trianon, 1920, Hungary
Hungary lost her Slovak provinces to Czechoslovakia, Transylvania and Buhovina to Romania, and Croatia and Bemat to Yugoslavia. Her armed force was limited and she lost over ½ her previous population. Hungary also had to pay reparations.
Treaty of Neuillv, 1919, Bulgaria
Although Bulgaria was not treated as harshly as the other nations, she still lost some territory to the newly created Yugoslavia, and Greece. Her armed forces were also limited and she also had to pay reparations.
Treaty of Sevres, 1920, Turkey:
It resulted in the following:
1. Great Britain was to control the states of Palestine and Mesopotamia.
2. France would control Syria and parts of Cilicia.
3. Italy would have spheres of influence in Anatolia.
4. Greece was to receive Eastern Thrace, Adrianople, Gallipoli, Imbros, Tenedos and the Dodecanese Islands.
5. Hejaz, Saudi Arabia and Yemen were made independent
6. The Dardanelles were to be opened to all ships and placed under the administration of an international commission
Treaty of Lausanne, 1923, Turkey:
After a newly elected and very popular leader, Mustapha Kemal, came to power in Turkey, he renounced the treaty of Sevres and defeated the Greeks who had occupied Smyrna. The allies then negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne which meant that Turkey was allowed to regain Anatolia, Adrianople, Eastern Thrace, and Gallipoli. She was not required to pay any reparations, nor was any restrictions placed on her army. However, the straits were left under an international commission until 1936.
Effect of Germany after the war
• striped of its land (colonies)
• war guilt clause
• reparation
• Germany had to take responsibility for the war
• Germany had to pay 132 000 000 000 000 USA pay for most it due to it was scared of Germany becoming communist state
launcher169
Lord of Chaos
This is a summary on Trotsky
Leon Trotsky (Personality Notes)
• Lev Davidovich Bronstein (he assumed the name Leon Trotsky in 1902) was born in Yanovka, Russia, on 7th November, 1879.
• His parents were Jewish and owned a farm in the Ukraine. When Trotsky was eight years old his father sent him to Odessa to be educated.
• Six years later he was transferred to Nikolayev where he was first introduced to the ideas of Karl Marx.
• In 1897 he became involved in organizing the underground South Russian Workers' Union. He was sent to Siberia after being arrested for revolutionary activity.
• After four years in captivity, he escaped and eventually made his way to London.
• Trotsky joined the Social Democratic Party and while in England he met and worked with a group of Marxists producing the journal Iskra. This included George Plekhanov, Pavel Axelrod, Vera Zasulich, Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov.
• At the Second Congress of the Social Democratic Party held in London in 1903, there was a dispute between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov.
• Martov won the vote 28-23 but Lenin was unwilling to accept the result and formed a faction known as the Bolsheviks. Those who remained loyal to Martov became known as Mensheviks. Trotsky was loyal to the Mensheviks as he prophesized that Lenin’s way would lead to a one-man dictatorship.
• Trotsky returned to Russia during the 1905 Revolution. Trotsky became heavily involved in the creation of the St. Petersburg Soviet and was eventually elected chairman.
• With the failings of the Duma, the Soviets were seen as the legitimate workers' government. Trotsky and the Soviets challenged the power of Nicholas II and attempted to enforce promises made in the October Manifesto such as the freedom of the press, assembly and association. In December, 1905, the St. Petersburg Soviet was crushed and Trotsky was arrested and imprisoned.
• In October, 1906 Trotsky was sentenced to internal exile and deprived of all civil rights. While in prison Trotsky developed the theory of permanent revolution. After two years in Siberia Trotsky managed to escape and eventually reached Vienna where he joined forces with Adolf Joffe to publish the journal, Pravda.
• Trotsky was now seen as one of the most important figures in the Russian revolutionary movement and Vladimir Lenin asked Lev Kamenev to try and persuade him to join the Bolsheviks.
• Trotsky arrived in New York in January, 1917 and worked with Nikolai Bukharin and Alexandra Kollontai in publishing the revolutionary newspaper Novy Mir.
• After the overthrow of Nicholas II in February, 1917, Trotsky set off for Russia. However, the Okhrana had been monitoring Trotsky's activities and managed to persuade the British authorities to arrest him when his ship arrived in the Canadian port of Halifax. The police held Trotsky in detention for a month and he was only released after protests from the Provisional Government.
• Trotsky arrived back in Russia in May, 1917. He disapproved of the support that many leading Mensheviks were now giving to the Provisional Government and the war effort and in July joined the Bolsheviks.
• Trotsky was released and on 23rd September, he was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. He immediately helped to enlist 25,000 armed recruits to defend Petrograd.
• Trotsky also became a member of the Petrograd Revolutionary Committee and played an important role in organizing the October Revolution that brought the Bolsheviks to power.
• In November, 1917, Vladimir Lenin appointed Trotsky as the people's commissar for foreign affairs. The following month he led the Russian delegation at Brest-Litovsk that was negotiating with representatives from Germany and Austria.
• Trotsky had the difficult task of trying to end Russian participation in the First World War without having to grant territory to the Central Powers. By employing delaying tactics Trotsky hoped that socialist revolutions would spread from Russia to Germany and Austria-Hungary before he had to sign the treaty.
• After nine weeks of discussions without agreement, the German Army was ordered to resume its advance into Russia. On 3rd March 1918, with German troops moving towards Petrograd, Vladimir Lenin ordered Trotsky to accept the terms of the Central Powers. The Brest-Litovsk Treaty resulted in the Russians surrendering the Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic provinces, the Caucasus and Poland.
• After the October Revolution it was decided by Vladimir Lenin that the Old Russian Army would have to be turned into an instrument of the Communist Party. The old army was demobilized and in January 1918 the Soviet government ordered the formation of the Red Army of Workers and Peasants. Trotsky, as Commissar of War, was appointed its leader.
• The Red Army had to be established quickly as it was needed to fight the White Army during the Civil War. Trotsky was forced to recruit a large number of officers from the old army. He was criticized for this but he argued that it would be impossible to fight the war without the employment of experienced army officers.
• Initially a volunteer army, losses during the Civil War forced the Soviet government to introduce conscription in June, 1918. Vladimir Lenin was impressed by Trotsky's achievements and in 1919 remarked to Maxim Gorky: "Show me another man who could have practically created a model army in a year and won respect of the military specialist as well."
• An outstanding military commander, Trotsky led his five million man army to victory and in doing so ensured the survival of the Bolshevik government. Trotsky was also elected a member of Communist Party Central Committee. Much to the dismay of his former supporters, Trotsky advocated the idea of the State control of trade unions and their merging with government bodies. This lost him the support of former Mensheviks such as Alexandra Kollontai.
• In 1921 Alexandra Kollontai published her pamphlet The Workers' Opposition, where she called for the trade unionists to be given more political freedom. She also argued that before the government attempts to "rid Soviet institutions of the bureaucracy that lurks within them, the Party must first rid itself of its own bureaucracy."
• Trotsky's prestige in the government was now very high and those who held these anti-bureaucratic views were either dismissed from office or were sent abroad as members of the diplomatic service.
• At the Party Conference in April, 1922, Vladimir Lenin suggested that a new post of General Secretary should be created. Lenin's choice for the post was Joseph Stalin, who in the past had always loyally supported his policies. Stalin's main opponents for the future leadership of the party failed to see the importance of this position and actually supported his nomination. They initially saw the post of General Secretary as being no more than "Lenin's mouthpiece".
• Soon after Stalin's appointment as General Secretary, Vladimir Lenin went into hospital to have a bullet removed from his body that had been there since Kaplan's assassination attempt. It was hoped that this operation would restore his health. This was not to be; soon afterwards, a blood vessel broke in Lenin's brain. This left him paralysed all down his right side and for a time he was unable to speak. As "Lenin's mouthpiece", Joseph Stalin had suddenly become extremely important.
• While Vladimir Lenin was immobilized, Joseph Stalin made full use of his powers as General Secretary. At the Party Congress he had been granted permission to expel "unsatisfactory" party members. This enabled Stalin to remove thousands of supporters of Trotsky, his main rival for the leadership of the party.
• As General Secretary, Stalin also had the power to appoint and sack people from important positions in the government. The new holders of these posts were fully aware that they owed their promotion to Stalin. They also knew that if their behaviour did not please Stalin they would be replaced.
• Surrounded by his supporters, Stalin's confidence began to grow. In October, 1922, he disagreed with Vladimir Lenin over the issue of foreign trade. When the matter was discussed at Central Committee, Stalin's rather Lenin's policy was accepted. Lenin began to fear that Stalin was taking over the leadership of the party.
• Lenin wrote to Trotsky asking for his support. Trotsky agreed and at the next meeting of the Central Committee the decision on foreign trade was reversed. Lenin, who was too ill to attend, wrote to Trotsky congratulating him on his success and suggesting that in future they should work together against Stalin.
• Stalin, whose wife Nadya Alliluyeva worked in Lenin's private office, soon discovered the contents of the letter sent to Trotsky. Stalin was furious as he realized that if Lenin and Trotsky worked together against him, his political career would be at an end. In a fit of temper Stalin made an abusive phone-call to Lenin's life, Nadezhda Krupskaya, accusing her of endangering Lenin's life by allowing him to write letters when he was so ill.
• After Krupskaya told her husband of the phone-call, Vladimir Lenin made the decision that Stalin was not the man to replace him as the leader of the party. Lenin knew he was close to death so he dictated to his secretary a letter that he wanted to serve as his last "will and testament".
• The document was comprised of his thoughts on the senior members of the party leadership. He wrote: "Comrade Stalin, having become General Secretary, has concentrated enormous power in his hands: and I am not sure that he always knows how to use that power with sufficient caution. I therefore propose to our comrades to consider a means of removing Stalin from this post and appointing someone else who differs from Stalin in one weighty respect: being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite, and more considerate of his comrades."
• However, Vladimir Lenin died before any action was taken. For a while Trotsky was considered to be the person who would replace the ailing Vladimir Lenin. However, Trotsky's inability to compromise had made him many enemies. His anti-Bolshevik past also made him unpopular with those who had been members of the Bolshevik faction since 1903.
• After the death of Lenin, Joseph Stalin joined forces with two left-wing members of the Politburo, Gregory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev to keep Trotsky from power.
• Both these men had reason to believe that Trotsky would dismiss them from power once he became leader. Stalin encouraged these fears. He also suggested that old party activists like themselves had more right to lead the Bolsheviks than Trotsky, who had only joined the party in 1917.
• Trotsky accused Stalin of being dictatorial and called for the introduction of more democracy into the party. Gregory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev united behind Stalin and accused Trotsky of creating divisions in the party.
• Trotsky's main hope of gaining power was for Lenin's last testament to be published. In May, 1924, Lenin's widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya, demanded that the Central Committee announce its contents to the rest of the party. Gregory Zinoviev argued strongly against its publication. He finished his speech with the words: "You have all witnessed our harmonious cooperation in the last few months, and, like me, you will be happy to say that Lenin's fears have proved baseless.”
• The new members of the Central Committee, who had been sponsored by Stalin, guaranteed that the vote went against Lenin's testament being made public.
• In 1925 Stalin was able to arrange for Trotsky to be removed from power. Some of Trotsky's supporters pleaded with him to organize a military coup. As commissar of war Trotsky was in a good position to arrange this. However, Trotsky rejected the idea and instead resigned his post.
• Trotsky and Joseph Stalin clashed over the future strategy of the country. Stalin favoured what he called "socialism in one country" whereas Trotsky still supported the idea of world revolution. In 1927 Stalin was able to get Trotsky expelled from the Communist Party.
• Two years later he was ordered to leave the Soviet Union. As Trotsky was still advocating world revolution, most countries refused to take him in. Eventually he was accepted by Turkey and soon afterwards he heard that his daughter, Zina, had died in mysterious circumstances in Berlin.
• In July, 1933, Trotsky moved to France. The French government came under pressure from Fascists and Stalinists to expel Trotsky from the country. In April, 1934, the French government issued a decree ordering Trotsky's deportation. However, no other country would accept him and it was not until June, 1935, that Norway accepted him.
• The Norwegian government was now encouraged to expel Trotsky. Under pressure from Joseph Stalin, the government placed him under house arrest before being deported to Mexico in December, 1936. The following year Trotsky's son Sergi was arrested in the Soviet Union. He was later to die in one of Stalin's concentration camps. In April, 1937, Trotsky appeared before a commission of inquiry in New York headed by John Dewey.
• Trotsky was found not guilty of the charges of treason being made by Stalin. Trotsky's son, Leon Sedov, died in mysterious circumstances in Paris on 16th February, 1938 and it is generally believed that he was murdered by the GPU.
Leon Trotsky (Personality Notes)
• Lev Davidovich Bronstein (he assumed the name Leon Trotsky in 1902) was born in Yanovka, Russia, on 7th November, 1879.
• His parents were Jewish and owned a farm in the Ukraine. When Trotsky was eight years old his father sent him to Odessa to be educated.
• Six years later he was transferred to Nikolayev where he was first introduced to the ideas of Karl Marx.
• In 1897 he became involved in organizing the underground South Russian Workers' Union. He was sent to Siberia after being arrested for revolutionary activity.
• After four years in captivity, he escaped and eventually made his way to London.
• Trotsky joined the Social Democratic Party and while in England he met and worked with a group of Marxists producing the journal Iskra. This included George Plekhanov, Pavel Axelrod, Vera Zasulich, Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov.
• At the Second Congress of the Social Democratic Party held in London in 1903, there was a dispute between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov.
• Martov won the vote 28-23 but Lenin was unwilling to accept the result and formed a faction known as the Bolsheviks. Those who remained loyal to Martov became known as Mensheviks. Trotsky was loyal to the Mensheviks as he prophesized that Lenin’s way would lead to a one-man dictatorship.
• Trotsky returned to Russia during the 1905 Revolution. Trotsky became heavily involved in the creation of the St. Petersburg Soviet and was eventually elected chairman.
• With the failings of the Duma, the Soviets were seen as the legitimate workers' government. Trotsky and the Soviets challenged the power of Nicholas II and attempted to enforce promises made in the October Manifesto such as the freedom of the press, assembly and association. In December, 1905, the St. Petersburg Soviet was crushed and Trotsky was arrested and imprisoned.
• In October, 1906 Trotsky was sentenced to internal exile and deprived of all civil rights. While in prison Trotsky developed the theory of permanent revolution. After two years in Siberia Trotsky managed to escape and eventually reached Vienna where he joined forces with Adolf Joffe to publish the journal, Pravda.
• Trotsky was now seen as one of the most important figures in the Russian revolutionary movement and Vladimir Lenin asked Lev Kamenev to try and persuade him to join the Bolsheviks.
• Trotsky arrived in New York in January, 1917 and worked with Nikolai Bukharin and Alexandra Kollontai in publishing the revolutionary newspaper Novy Mir.
• After the overthrow of Nicholas II in February, 1917, Trotsky set off for Russia. However, the Okhrana had been monitoring Trotsky's activities and managed to persuade the British authorities to arrest him when his ship arrived in the Canadian port of Halifax. The police held Trotsky in detention for a month and he was only released after protests from the Provisional Government.
• Trotsky arrived back in Russia in May, 1917. He disapproved of the support that many leading Mensheviks were now giving to the Provisional Government and the war effort and in July joined the Bolsheviks.
• Trotsky was released and on 23rd September, he was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. He immediately helped to enlist 25,000 armed recruits to defend Petrograd.
• Trotsky also became a member of the Petrograd Revolutionary Committee and played an important role in organizing the October Revolution that brought the Bolsheviks to power.
• In November, 1917, Vladimir Lenin appointed Trotsky as the people's commissar for foreign affairs. The following month he led the Russian delegation at Brest-Litovsk that was negotiating with representatives from Germany and Austria.
• Trotsky had the difficult task of trying to end Russian participation in the First World War without having to grant territory to the Central Powers. By employing delaying tactics Trotsky hoped that socialist revolutions would spread from Russia to Germany and Austria-Hungary before he had to sign the treaty.
• After nine weeks of discussions without agreement, the German Army was ordered to resume its advance into Russia. On 3rd March 1918, with German troops moving towards Petrograd, Vladimir Lenin ordered Trotsky to accept the terms of the Central Powers. The Brest-Litovsk Treaty resulted in the Russians surrendering the Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic provinces, the Caucasus and Poland.
• After the October Revolution it was decided by Vladimir Lenin that the Old Russian Army would have to be turned into an instrument of the Communist Party. The old army was demobilized and in January 1918 the Soviet government ordered the formation of the Red Army of Workers and Peasants. Trotsky, as Commissar of War, was appointed its leader.
• The Red Army had to be established quickly as it was needed to fight the White Army during the Civil War. Trotsky was forced to recruit a large number of officers from the old army. He was criticized for this but he argued that it would be impossible to fight the war without the employment of experienced army officers.
• Initially a volunteer army, losses during the Civil War forced the Soviet government to introduce conscription in June, 1918. Vladimir Lenin was impressed by Trotsky's achievements and in 1919 remarked to Maxim Gorky: "Show me another man who could have practically created a model army in a year and won respect of the military specialist as well."
• An outstanding military commander, Trotsky led his five million man army to victory and in doing so ensured the survival of the Bolshevik government. Trotsky was also elected a member of Communist Party Central Committee. Much to the dismay of his former supporters, Trotsky advocated the idea of the State control of trade unions and their merging with government bodies. This lost him the support of former Mensheviks such as Alexandra Kollontai.
• In 1921 Alexandra Kollontai published her pamphlet The Workers' Opposition, where she called for the trade unionists to be given more political freedom. She also argued that before the government attempts to "rid Soviet institutions of the bureaucracy that lurks within them, the Party must first rid itself of its own bureaucracy."
• Trotsky's prestige in the government was now very high and those who held these anti-bureaucratic views were either dismissed from office or were sent abroad as members of the diplomatic service.
• At the Party Conference in April, 1922, Vladimir Lenin suggested that a new post of General Secretary should be created. Lenin's choice for the post was Joseph Stalin, who in the past had always loyally supported his policies. Stalin's main opponents for the future leadership of the party failed to see the importance of this position and actually supported his nomination. They initially saw the post of General Secretary as being no more than "Lenin's mouthpiece".
• Soon after Stalin's appointment as General Secretary, Vladimir Lenin went into hospital to have a bullet removed from his body that had been there since Kaplan's assassination attempt. It was hoped that this operation would restore his health. This was not to be; soon afterwards, a blood vessel broke in Lenin's brain. This left him paralysed all down his right side and for a time he was unable to speak. As "Lenin's mouthpiece", Joseph Stalin had suddenly become extremely important.
• While Vladimir Lenin was immobilized, Joseph Stalin made full use of his powers as General Secretary. At the Party Congress he had been granted permission to expel "unsatisfactory" party members. This enabled Stalin to remove thousands of supporters of Trotsky, his main rival for the leadership of the party.
• As General Secretary, Stalin also had the power to appoint and sack people from important positions in the government. The new holders of these posts were fully aware that they owed their promotion to Stalin. They also knew that if their behaviour did not please Stalin they would be replaced.
• Surrounded by his supporters, Stalin's confidence began to grow. In October, 1922, he disagreed with Vladimir Lenin over the issue of foreign trade. When the matter was discussed at Central Committee, Stalin's rather Lenin's policy was accepted. Lenin began to fear that Stalin was taking over the leadership of the party.
• Lenin wrote to Trotsky asking for his support. Trotsky agreed and at the next meeting of the Central Committee the decision on foreign trade was reversed. Lenin, who was too ill to attend, wrote to Trotsky congratulating him on his success and suggesting that in future they should work together against Stalin.
• Stalin, whose wife Nadya Alliluyeva worked in Lenin's private office, soon discovered the contents of the letter sent to Trotsky. Stalin was furious as he realized that if Lenin and Trotsky worked together against him, his political career would be at an end. In a fit of temper Stalin made an abusive phone-call to Lenin's life, Nadezhda Krupskaya, accusing her of endangering Lenin's life by allowing him to write letters when he was so ill.
• After Krupskaya told her husband of the phone-call, Vladimir Lenin made the decision that Stalin was not the man to replace him as the leader of the party. Lenin knew he was close to death so he dictated to his secretary a letter that he wanted to serve as his last "will and testament".
• The document was comprised of his thoughts on the senior members of the party leadership. He wrote: "Comrade Stalin, having become General Secretary, has concentrated enormous power in his hands: and I am not sure that he always knows how to use that power with sufficient caution. I therefore propose to our comrades to consider a means of removing Stalin from this post and appointing someone else who differs from Stalin in one weighty respect: being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite, and more considerate of his comrades."
• However, Vladimir Lenin died before any action was taken. For a while Trotsky was considered to be the person who would replace the ailing Vladimir Lenin. However, Trotsky's inability to compromise had made him many enemies. His anti-Bolshevik past also made him unpopular with those who had been members of the Bolshevik faction since 1903.
• After the death of Lenin, Joseph Stalin joined forces with two left-wing members of the Politburo, Gregory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev to keep Trotsky from power.
• Both these men had reason to believe that Trotsky would dismiss them from power once he became leader. Stalin encouraged these fears. He also suggested that old party activists like themselves had more right to lead the Bolsheviks than Trotsky, who had only joined the party in 1917.
• Trotsky accused Stalin of being dictatorial and called for the introduction of more democracy into the party. Gregory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev united behind Stalin and accused Trotsky of creating divisions in the party.
• Trotsky's main hope of gaining power was for Lenin's last testament to be published. In May, 1924, Lenin's widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya, demanded that the Central Committee announce its contents to the rest of the party. Gregory Zinoviev argued strongly against its publication. He finished his speech with the words: "You have all witnessed our harmonious cooperation in the last few months, and, like me, you will be happy to say that Lenin's fears have proved baseless.”
• The new members of the Central Committee, who had been sponsored by Stalin, guaranteed that the vote went against Lenin's testament being made public.
• In 1925 Stalin was able to arrange for Trotsky to be removed from power. Some of Trotsky's supporters pleaded with him to organize a military coup. As commissar of war Trotsky was in a good position to arrange this. However, Trotsky rejected the idea and instead resigned his post.
• Trotsky and Joseph Stalin clashed over the future strategy of the country. Stalin favoured what he called "socialism in one country" whereas Trotsky still supported the idea of world revolution. In 1927 Stalin was able to get Trotsky expelled from the Communist Party.
• Two years later he was ordered to leave the Soviet Union. As Trotsky was still advocating world revolution, most countries refused to take him in. Eventually he was accepted by Turkey and soon afterwards he heard that his daughter, Zina, had died in mysterious circumstances in Berlin.
• In July, 1933, Trotsky moved to France. The French government came under pressure from Fascists and Stalinists to expel Trotsky from the country. In April, 1934, the French government issued a decree ordering Trotsky's deportation. However, no other country would accept him and it was not until June, 1935, that Norway accepted him.
• The Norwegian government was now encouraged to expel Trotsky. Under pressure from Joseph Stalin, the government placed him under house arrest before being deported to Mexico in December, 1936. The following year Trotsky's son Sergi was arrested in the Soviet Union. He was later to die in one of Stalin's concentration camps. In April, 1937, Trotsky appeared before a commission of inquiry in New York headed by John Dewey.
• Trotsky was found not guilty of the charges of treason being made by Stalin. Trotsky's son, Leon Sedov, died in mysterious circumstances in Paris on 16th February, 1938 and it is generally believed that he was murdered by the GPU.